Manhua
The word manhua first appeared in 18th-century Chinese literati painting, a term used by scholars to describe allegorical or satirical drawings. It traveled across the sea and became known as manga in Japan during the late 19th century. Feng Zikai brought the term back to China in 1925 with his series of political cartoons titled Zikai Manhua. This work appeared in the publication Wenxue Zhoubao, also called Literature Weekly. Before this moment, various other names existed for cartoon art, but Feng's publication took precedence over all previous descriptions. The characters remained identical to those used for Japanese manga and Korean manhwa today. Someone who draws or writes these works is referred to as a huajia.
Satirical drawings began appearing in newspapers and periodicals starting in the 1870s, following the introduction of lithographic printing methods from the West. The first piece drawn by a person of Chinese nationality was The Situation in the Far East, created by Tse Tsan-tai in 1899 and printed in Japan. Sun Yat-Sen established the Republic of China in 1911 using Hong Kong's manhua to circulate anti-Qing propaganda. By 1928, Shanghai Sketch became the first major successful magazine dedicated to satirical cartoons. Between 1934 and 1937, about 17 magazines were published in Shanghai alone. When the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out in 1937, many cartoonists fled cities like Shanghai to wage cartoon guerilla warfare against invaders. They mounted roving exhibitions and published magazines in inland cities such as Hankou. Zhang Leping's Sanmao, first published in 1935, remained one of the most popular and enduring comics of this era until the Japanese occupation halted all activities in 1941.
After World War II, Hong Kong emerged as the main ready market for comics due to rising Chinese immigration and a baby boom generation of children. The most influential adult magazine from 1956 was Cartoons World, which fueled sales of Uncle Choi. Local publishers faced competition from pirated Japanese manga sold at bargain prices of just 10 cents. The arrival of television in the 1970s changed the landscape further when Bruce Lee films dominated the era and launched a new wave of Kung Fu comics. Explicit violence in these books led the Government of Hong Kong to intervene with the Indecent Publication Law in 1975. Meanwhile, Taiwanese manhua developed during the Japanese colonial period between 1895 and 1945. Publications like Taiwan Puck appeared in 1911, followed by Tetsuwan Puck in 1912 and Takasago Puck in 1916. After the war, an influx of American comics such as Blondie and Dennis the Menace helped solidify popularity on the island. Democratization in the 1990s allowed manhua to gain recognition as legitimate artistic expression.
In the second half of the 2000s, cartoonists began using social media platforms to spread satirical strips online instead of relying on strictly controlled print publishing. Websites such as Douban opened in 2005, while Sina Weibo launched in 2009, becoming popular venues for webmanhua. Despite China being a major consumer of comics for decades, the medium has never been taken seriously as art by many critics. R. Martin of The Comics Journal described the Chinese outlook as pulpy imitations of films. Cartoonists faced difficulty reaching large audiences through traditional channels, so they turned to self-publishing on microblogging websites. Kuang Biao and Rebel Pepper used the Internet to criticize Communist Party leaders openly. Rebel Pepper's account on Sina Weibo was deleted over 180 times by 2012 alone. Reuters reported in September 2013 that about 150 graduates were employed full-time to censor content day and night. Automatic systems processed around three million posts daily, removing sensitive images within minutes.
Modern Chinese-style manhua characteristics are credited to the breakthrough artwork of the 1982 series Chinese Hero. Unlike manga, it featured more realistic drawings with details resembling real people. Most works also came in full color, with some panels rendered entirely as paintings for single issue formats. Text placement varied significantly depending on where the work originated. Mainland China placed original text horizontally and read from left to right like Western comics or Korean manhwa. Taiwanese and Hong Kongese versions rendered characters vertically top to bottom, reading sentences from right to left similar to Japanese manga. Cultural openness in Hong Kong brought translations of American Disney characters like Mickey Mouse and Pinocchio during the 1950s. This western influence appeared in local works such as Little Angeli published in 1954. The influx of translated Japanese manga in the 1960s and televised anime also made a significant impression on regional styles.
Political cartoonist Liu Big Corpse Brother had over 130,000 followers on Sina Weibo in December 2013, yet financial struggles remained widespread across the industry. Prize-winning cartoonists such as Chung Yun-de and Yeh Yu-tung were forced to turn to webcomics because their monthly income was too low to live from. Beijing cartoonist Bu Er Miao sold her webcomic Electric Cat and Lightning Dog on Douban's eBook service for 1.99 CNY, roughly 0.30 USD. She described the 1.79 CNY she makes per comic sold as an amount of money that if you saw it on the street, no one would bother to pick up. The Taiwanese comics industry expects webcomics to prosper financially, though no accurate figures exist as of yet. Despite growing popularity, little money is currently made through online manhua in China due to free reading access models. Webtoons have grown in popularity thanks to South Korean platforms like Naver under the Line brand. While portals in mainland China are run by big internet companies, Taiwan offers operations by publishers outside the country.
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Common questions
When did the word manhua first appear in Chinese literature?
The word manhua first appeared in 18th-century Chinese literati painting as a term used by scholars to describe allegorical or satirical drawings. Feng Zikai brought the term back to China in 1925 with his series of political cartoons titled Zikai Manhua.
Who created the first piece drawn by a person of Chinese nationality?
Tse Tsan-tai created The Situation in the Far East, which was the first piece drawn by a person of Chinese nationality and printed in Japan in 1899. This work followed the introduction of lithographic printing methods from the West that allowed satirical drawings to appear in newspapers starting in the 1870s.
What caused Hong Kong to become the main ready market for comics after World War II?
Hong Kong emerged as the main ready market for comics due to rising Chinese immigration and a baby boom generation of children. Local publishers faced competition from pirated Japanese manga sold at bargain prices of just 10 cents while television arrived in the 1970s to change the landscape further.
How did modern Chinese-style manhua characteristics differ from manga?
Modern Chinese-style manhua characteristics are credited to the breakthrough artwork of the 1982 series Chinese Hero which featured more realistic drawings with details resembling real people. Most works also came in full color with some panels rendered entirely as paintings for single issue formats unlike traditional manga styles.
Why do cartoonists face financial struggles in the online manhua industry today?
Cartoonists face financial struggles because little money is currently made through online manhua in China due to free reading access models. Prize-winning cartoonists such as Chung Yun-de and Yeh Yu-tung were forced to turn to webcomics because their monthly income was too low to live from despite growing popularity.