Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon

• 1. Mandate Origins And Framework

  ›

  On the 29th of September 1923, France received the League of Nations mandate for Syria. This territory included what is now Lebanon and Alexandretta alongside modern Syria. The mandate system was designed to differ from colonialism. A governing country acted as a trustee until inhabitants were ready for self-government. At that point, the mandate would end and a sovereign state would emerge. During the two years following World War I, British forces held Ottoman Iraq and southern Syria while French troops controlled the rest of Ottoman Syria. General Sir Edmund Allenby entered Damascus in 1918 with Arab Revolt troops led by Faisal. Faisal established an Arab government in October 1918 and named Ali Rikabi as military governor. Local governments formed in major Syrian cities under this new administration. Pan-Arab flags flew across Syria as Arabs hoped for a unified state stretching from Aleppo to Aden. However, the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement between Britain and France reserved Palestine for the British. On the 8th of October, French troops disembarked in Beirut and occupied the Lebanese coastal region south to Naqoura. They replaced British troops there and dissolved local Arab governments immediately. France demanded full implementation of the Sykes-Picot Agreement with Syria under its control. British forces withdrew from Damascus on the 26th of November 1919 to avoid confrontation with the French. Faisal traveled multiple times to Europe since November 1918 trying to change French and British positions without success. The Paris Peace Conference left Faisal in a weaker position when European powers reneged on promises made to Arabs. Throughout early colonial administration, collaboration persisted between British and French authorities regarding economic interests like establishing customs-free zones.

• 2. Syrian Nationalist Resistance

  ›

  In March 1920, the Congress in Damascus adopted a resolution rejecting the Faisal-Clemenceau accords. The congress declared independence of Syria in her natural borders including Southern Syria or Palestine. It proclaimed Faisal king of all Arabs. Ali Rikabi formed a government following this declaration. The congress also proclaimed political and economic union with neighboring Iraq while demanding its independence as well. These decisions provoked adverse reactions by France and the Maronite patriarchate of Mount Lebanon which denounced them as a coup d'état. Christian press in Beirut expressed hostility toward Faisal's government decisions. Lebanese nationalists convened a council of Christian figures in Baabda that proclaimed Lebanon's independence on the 22nd of March 1920. On the 14th of July 1920, General Gouraud issued an ultimatum giving Faisal choice between submission or abdication. Faisal chose cooperation realizing power balance was not in his favor. Young minister of war Yusuf al-Azma refused to comply however. Syrian troops under al-Azmeh composed of remaining Arab army troops along with Bedouin horsemen and civilian volunteers met better trained 12,000-strong French forces under General Mariano Goybet at Battle of Maysaloun. The French won battle in less than one day. Azmeh died on battlefield along with many Syrian troops while remaining troops possibly defected. General Goybet captured Damascus with little resistance on the 24th of July 1920. Mandate written in London two years later on the 24th of July 1922. Unrest erupted when Faisal accepted compromise with French Prime Minister Clemenceau. Anti-Hashemite demonstrations broke out and Muslim inhabitants around Mount Lebanon revolted fearing incorporation into new mainly Christian state of Greater Lebanon.

• 3. Division Into Autonomous States

  ›

  On the 3rd of August 1920, Arrêté 299 linked cazas of Hasbaya, Rachaya, Maallaka and Baalbeck to Autonomous Territory of Lebanon. On the 31st of August 1920, General Gouraud signed Arrêté 318 delimiting State of Greater Lebanon with explanatory notes stating Lebanon would be treated separately from rest of Syria. On the 1st of September 1920, General Gouraud publicly proclaimed creation of State of Greater Lebanon at ceremony in Beirut. Maronites were majority in Lebanon managing to preserve independence creating unique precedent in Arab world as first Arab country where Christians not minority. Most Muslims rejected new state upon its creation. Some believe continuous Muslim demand for reunification with Syria eventually brought armed conflict between Muslims and Christians in 1958 when Lebanese Muslims wanted join newly proclaimed United Arab Republic while Lebanese Christians strongly opposed. On the 19th of August 1920, General Gouraud signed Arrêté 314 adding cazas of Jisr el-Choughour, madriyehs of Baher and Bujack, moudiriyeh of Kinsaba to form territories of Greater Lebanon and Ansarieh Mountains. On the 31st of August 1920 same day decree creating Greater Lebanon signed, General Gouraud signed Arrêté 319 delimiting State of Alawites and Arrêté 317 adding caza of Massyaf into new State. State of Alawites located on Syrian coast incorporating majority of Alawites branch of Shia Islam. Port city Latakia capital of this state initially autonomous territory under French rule known as Alawite Territories. It became part of Syrian Federation in 1922 but left federation again in 1924 becoming State of Alawites. Population at time was 278,000. Government of Latakia finally joined Syrian Republic on the 5th of December 1936. This state witnessed several rebellions against French including that of Salih al-Ali from 1918 to 1920.

• 4. The Hatay Annexation Crisis

  ›

  On the 2nd of September 1938, assembly proclaimed Sanjak of Alexandretta as Hatay State. Republic lasted one year under joint French and Turkish military supervision. Name Hatay itself proposed by Atatürk government under Turkish control. In 1939 following popular referendum, Hatay State became Turkish province. Before this event, Alawi Arabs and Armenians were majority of Alexandretta's population. In 1938 Turkish military went into Syrian province expelling most of its Alawite Arab and Armenian inhabitants. Allocation seats in sanjak assembly based on 1938 census held by French authorities under international supervision. Assembly appointed summer of 1938. French-Turkish treaty settling status Sanjak signed the 4th of July 1938. Sanjak given autonomy November 1937 arrangement brokered by League. Under new statute sanjak became distinct but not separated from French Mandate Syria diplomatic level linked both France and Turkey for defense matters. In 1923 Alexandretta attached to State of Aleppo then directly attached to French mandate Syria still with special administrative status. The autonomous Sanjak of Alexandretta became province Syria under Article 7 French-Turkish treaty the 20th of October 1921. Special administrative regime established district Alexandretta. Turkish inhabitants enjoyed facility cultural development. Turkish language official recognition.

• 5. Economic Policies And Trade

  ›

  Already in 1921 French wanted develop agricultural sector over feasibility study Union Economique de Syrie North-East Syrian and Alawite State deemed profitable cotton cultivation. Investments began 1924 took until 1930s produce more than level reached 1925. Due high economic integration region trade separation would harm both mandates. British and French agreed customs-free zone between their mandates 1921 even though decision protested French manufacturers. Population Palestine, Syria Lebanon strongly favor customs-free zone successfully protest possible abolition 1927. This affected local imported goods processed goods currently transit. By 1933 Palestine largest importer Syrian goods while French held share 7.5% imports. Between two World Wars France became largest trader goods French Mandate. From 1933 onwards Japan also large source imports. In 1936-1937 some autonomist agitation among Assyrians Kurds supported Bedouins province Al-Jazira. Partisans wanted French troops stay province event Syrian independence fearing nationalist Damascus government replace minority officials Muslim Arabs from capital. French authorities refused consider any new status autonomy inside Syria. In Quneitra Golan Region sizeable Circassian community existed. Several Circassian leaders wanted special autonomy status region 1938 as they feared prospect living independent Syrian republic under nationalist Arab government hostile towards minorities. They also wanted Golan region become national homeland Circassian refugees Caucasus. Circassian battalion served French Army Levant helped it against Arab nationalist uprisings. As Al-Jazira Province French authorities refused grant any autonomy status Golan Circassians.

• 6. Path To Independence

  ›

  On the 24th of October 1922, Arrêté 1641 established Autonomous State of Jabal Druze created for Druze population southern Syria. It had population some 50,000 capital As-Suwayda. In 1936 both Jebel Druze and Alawite State incorporated into State of Syria. Both used similar wording territory Djebel Druze part State Syria territory enjoys within State Syria special administrative financial regime subject provisions territory Djebel Druze governed Constitution laws general regulations Syrian Republic present Order enter force upon ratification Franco-Syrian Treaty. The mandate lasted until 1946 when French troops eventually left Syria Lebanon which had declared independence during World War II. On the 28th of June 1922, Arrêté 1459 created Federation Autonomous States Syria included State Aleppo State Damascus State Alawis. Two and a half years later the 5th of December 1924, Arrêté 2979 and Arrêté 2980 established Alawite State independent state Latakia capital separately unified States Aleppo Damascus single State called État de Syrie State Syria formally established the 1st of January 1925. State of Aleppo 1920-1925 included majority Sunni Muslims covered northern Syria addition entire fertile basin river Euphrates eastern Syria regions represented much agricultural mineral wealth Syria. Autonomous Sanjak Alexandretta added State Aleppo 1923. Capital northern city Aleppo large Christian Jewish communities addition Sunni Muslims. State also incorporated minorities Shiites Alawites. Ethnic Kurds Assyrians inhabited eastern regions alongside Arabs. General Governors state Kamil Pasha al-Qudsi 1920-1922 Mustafa Bey Barmada 1923 Mar'i Pasha Al Mallah 1924-1925. State Damascus French mandate 1920 to 1925 capital Damascus primarily Sunni population states Aleppo Damascus strongly opposed division Syria resulted quick end 1925 France united states Aleppo Damascus State Syria.