In 1195, King Richard I of England and his minister Hubert Walter commissioned certain knights to preserve the peace in unruly areas, creating the first formalized version of what would become the justice of the peace. These early officials were responsible to the King in ensuring that the law was upheld and preserving the King's peace, a duty that bound them directly to the Crown. By 1327, an act of parliament referred to good and lawful men to be appointed in every county to guard the peace, and these individuals were first known as conservators of the peace or wardens of the peace. The title justice of the peace itself derives from 1361, in the reign of Edward III, marking a pivotal moment when the role became institutionalized within the English legal system. The peace to be guarded was the sovereign's, and the maintenance of that peace was the duty of the Crown under the royal prerogative. Justices of the peace still use the power conferred or re-conferred on them since 1361 to bind over unruly persons to be of good behavior. This bind over is not a punishment but a preventive measure, intended to ensure that people thought likely to offend will not do so. The justices' alternative title of magistrate dates from the 16th century, although the word had been in use centuries earlier to describe some legal officials of Roman times. In the centuries from the Tudor period until the onset of the Industrial Revolution, the JPs constituted a major element of the English governmental system, which in modern times has sometimes been termed a squirearchy, meaning the dominance of the land-owning gentry. For example, historian Tim Blanning notes that while in Britain the royal prerogative was decisively curbed by the Bill of Rights 1689, in practice the central government in London had a greater ability to get its policies implemented in the rural outlying regions than could contemporary absolute monarchies such as France. This paradox was due especially to JPs belonging to the same social class as the Members of Parliament and thus having a direct interest in getting laws actually enforced and implemented on the ground. Being an unpaid office, undertaken voluntarily and sometimes more for the sake of renown or to confirm the justice's standing within the community, the justice was typically a member of the gentry. The justices of the peace conducted arraignments in all criminal cases, and tried misdemeanours and infractions of local ordinances and bylaws. Towns and boroughs with enough burdensome judicial business that could not find volunteers for the unpaid role of justice of the peace had to petition the Crown for authority to hire a paid stipendiary magistrate. The Municipal Corporations Act 1835 stripped the power to appoint normal JPs from those municipal corporations that had it. This was replaced by the present system, where the Lord Chancellor nominates candidates with local advice, for appointment by the Crown. Until the introduction of elected county councils in the 19th century, JPs, in quarter sessions, also administered the county at a local level. Their many roles included regulating wages and food supplies, managing roads, bridges, prisons and workhouses and they undertook to provide and supervise locally those services mandated by the Crown and Parliament for the welfare of the county. To this end they set the County Rate, where one was set at all. Women were not allowed to become JPs in the United Kingdom until 1919, the first woman being Ada Summers, the Mayor of Stalybridge, who was a JP by virtue of her office. In October 1920 Summers was appointed a JP in her own right, alongside other pioneers including Edith Sutton and Miriam Lightowler OBE in Halifax. Emily Murphy of Edmonton, Canada, preceded her by some three and a half years. As at 2018 in England and Wales, about one-third of JPs are women. In special circumstances, a justice of the peace can be the highest governmental representative, so in fact gubernatorial, in a colonial entity. This was the case in the Tati Concessions Land, a gold-mining concession in the Matabele kingdom, until its annexation by the British Bechuanaland protectorate.
Esther Hobart Morris became the first female justice of the peace in the United States in 1870, shattering barriers in a male-dominated legal landscape. She began her tenure as justice in South Pass City, Wyoming, on the 14th of February 1870, serving a term of nearly 9 months. The Sweetwater County Board of County Commissioners appointed Morris as justice of the peace after the previous justice, R.S. Barr, resigned in protest of Wyoming Territory's passage of the women's suffrage amendment in December 1869. Her appointment was a direct response to the political climate of the territory, which had become the first to grant women the right to vote. Morris's tenure was short but symbolic, proving that women could hold judicial office and perform the duties of a magistrate. In many US states, the justice of the peace is a judge of a court of limited jurisdiction, a magistrate, or a quasi-judicial official with certain statutory or common law magisterial powers. Some states have special qualifications or unique features for the office. The justice of the peace typically presides over a court that hears misdemeanor cases, traffic violations, and other petty criminal infractions. The justice of the peace may also have authority over cases involving small debts, landlord and tenant disputes, or other small claims court proceedings. Proceedings before justices of the peace are often faster and less formal than the proceedings in other courts. In some jurisdictions a party convicted or found liable before a justice of the peace may have the right to a trial de novo before the judge of a higher court rather than an appeal strictly considered. A justice of the peace also performs civil marriages. In Arizona, a justice of the peace has the same jurisdiction as a municipal magistrate with respect to traffic and misdemeanor cases and restraining orders, though over cases whose affairs are not contained within the confines of a single municipality. Additionally, the Justice Court hears cases involving county ordinances, civil lawsuits up to a limit of $10,000, small claims cases up to $2,500, and issues evictions, called writs of restitution. Justices of the peace, also called JPs, or Judges of the Justice Court, are elected in partisan elections for four-year terms from specific districts called precincts. They have the same authority and responsibility as all other judges in the state with respect to performing marriages, administering oaths, adhering to the code of judicial conduct, and all aspects of justice administration. However, Arizona law does not require justices of the peace to be lawyers. Many justices of the peace are not legally trained, although all are required by the Arizona Supreme Court to complete a course at the Arizona Judicial College. In Arkansas, a justice of the peace is an elected official equivalent to a county commissioner or county supervisor in some other states. Arkansas JPs sit on a county quorum court, composed of 9, 11, 13 or 15 JPs. The quorum court is a part-time body, elected from single-member districts, that has overall responsibility for county affairs. Among their responsibilities are passing the budget, creating new ordinances, setting property tax millage levels, and working with other elected officials. The full-time elected county administrator, who presides over the quorum court, is the county judge. Neither JPs nor the county judge have any judicial authority, though they do have the power to preside over civil marriages. Justices of the peace are elected every two years to these partisan offices. JPs first gained formal legislative authority under constitutional Amendment 55, passed by voters in 1974. In Florida, justices of the peace existed from the time of its acquisition from Spain in 1821 until the Florida Constitution was amended in 1968 to abolish the post. From about 1940 to 1968, Florida counties had the ability to hold local referendums to allow county voters to abolish the post on a county-by-county basis. For example, Leon County, the location of Tallahassee, Florida's capital city, voted to abolish justices of the peace in the Fall elections of 1958. By 1958, the county commission had reduced the number of JOP districts from a turn-of-the-century peak of 13 districts to just two districts. The automobile age made the county sheriff able to patrol the entire county and made it possible for the citizenry to travel to the courthouse for legal proceedings. In Louisiana, justices of the peace are elected to serve six-year terms as the judicial authority of a ward or district, but not where city courts exist. They have jurisdiction in civil matters when the amount in dispute does not exceed $5,000. They do not have jurisdiction when a title to real estate is involved, when the state or any political subdivision is a defendant, or in successions or probate matters. They are authorized to perform marriage ceremonies. There are around 390 such Justices of the peace. In Maine, the office of the Justice of the Peace was merged with Notary Public, a process that took place from 1981 to 1988. The duties that were attached to the office of Justice of the Peace were fully transferred to the Notary Public in 1988. The office currently named as Justice of the Peace in Maine is a court officer, an attorney, involved in the process of issuing warrants and responding to complaints. The office however is not related to either the current Notary Public office or the previous Justice of the Peace office and is part of the Maine Bureau of Corporations, Elections & Commissions. In Massachusetts, justices of the peace are commissioned by the Governor with the advice and consent of the Council for seven-year terms. They are often called on to solemnize non-religious marriages, especially same-sex marriages, which certain religious officials are not willing to oversee. They have the same general oath-giving powers as a notary public, and are also empowered to issue certain writs. Justices of peace are also empowered to keep the peace and suppress riots, and enforce all laws that keep public peace. Furthermore, upon the recommendation of a town selectman, they may be authorized by the governor to take bail in criminal cases. In Minnesota, the office of the Justice of the Peace was abolished in 1977. It has not existed for 40-plus years although some people who offer private wedding officiant services erroneously claim to be Justices of the Peace. Under Minnesota law, however, judges, retired judges, court administrators, retired court administrators, and other public officials designated in statute may officiate or solemnize marriage ceremonies in addition to licensed or ordained ministers of any religious denomination who have filed their credentials with a county registrar. In New York, justice courts are courts that handle traffic tickets, criminal and environmental conservation law matters, small claims and local code violations such as zoning. Though justice courts constitutionally are part of the New York State Unified Court System, state law generally makes justice courts independent of New York's Office of Court Administration and instead makes justice courts the responsibility of their sponsoring localities. Town justice courts are often called town courts, and village justice courts are often called village courts. City courts in New York State handle mostly the same types of cases but are not justice courts. The official title for judges in justice courts is justice, the same as in New York Supreme Court. However, in common usage, most people, including lawyers, call them judge. In general, justices in justice court do not have to be lawyers, except for justice courts with jurisdiction in villages. The vast majority are not. Many of these courts are in small towns and villages where none of the residents are lawyers. In the larger towns, the justices are almost always lawyers. While justices and their court clerks receive training from OCA, there is tremendous variability in how cases are handled. This includes court procedures and substantive results. Some courts will dismiss a traffic ticket if the officer does not appear for a trial, while others will adjourn the matter to give the officer another chance. In some courts the police prosecute their own tickets, while in others an assistant district attorney from the county or a town or village attorney will prosecute the tickets. This may even vary by the type of officer, with state troopers and deputies prosecuting their tickets and a town attorney prosecuting tickets written by the town police. Larger towns can have very busy caseloads, including several sessions a week with dozens of cases at each session, and people may have to wait hours before their cases are heard. In some small towns the caseload is extremely light, and a court might meet once a month and have only a few cases. All criminal prosecutions that occur in towns and villages are commenced in a justice court. Misdemeanors are handled exclusively in the justice court, while felonies generally move up to county court after defendants are arraigned in a Justice Court before the case moves forward. Similar matters in some places outside New York are handled by a justice of the peace. Town and village Justices also possess limited powers of a New York notary public, ex-officio, only within the county in which the town or village for which they serve is located; they may administer oaths and affirmations and take acknowledgments and proofs of execution. Some Justices seek and obtain a formal New York notary public commission to permit free travel statewide and enjoy the additional privileges and international legal recognition of a notary public. In New Hampshire, justices of the peace are commissioned magisterial officers, appointed by the Governor and Executive Council to terms of five years, with the power to administer oaths, acknowledge instruments, perform marriage ceremonies and, effective the 1st of January 2008, solemnize civil unions for same-sex couples. They may also order compulsory mental examinations for good cause, act as a magisterial official regarding enforcement complaints on orders for isolation or quarantine issued by the Commissioner of Health and Human Services, administer oaths of office to public officials, take depositions and issue subpoenas. New Hampshire justices of the peace are also authorized, upon a showing of probable cause supported by affidavit, to issue arrest warrants, search warrants, administrative inspection warrants and by court appointment, to fix and receive bail in criminal cases. In North Carolina, justices of the peace existed during the time of the Province of North Carolina from 1712 to 1776. They were appointed by the colonial Governor and served in counties or districts. Justices were essential for conducting court business. After independence, the 1776 Constitution of North Carolina and an act passed by the North Carolina General Assembly of 1777 re-defined justices of peace in the State of North Carolina. Justices of the peace were authorized to marry and had other court duties and assisted in collecting taxes. Duties of the justices were further reduced after the 1868 North Carolina Constitution and inferior courts were abolished. In Oregon, as of 2023, Justices of the Peace preside over 22 Justice Courts. Oregon Justices of the Peace are state court judges, even though their salary is paid by their respective counties. A Justice of the Peace is elected for a term of six years. If a Justice of the Peace position becomes vacant during the Justice's term, the Governor appoints a Justice to fill the vacancy until the next general election. In Oregon, Justices of the Peace have jurisdiction over civil lawsuits of less than $10,000, evictions, misdemeanors, and violations, like traffic tickets, boating violations, and wildlife violations. Further, Justice Courts have jurisdiction over violations of the county code, and some Justice Courts act as the municipal court of certain cities. Justice courts do not have jurisdiction over certain types of civil cases, including disputes over title to real estate, false imprisonment, libel, slander, and malicious prosecution. Justices of the Peace are authorized to perform courthouse weddings in Oregon. In Texas, JPs are elected on a partisan ballot every four years. Texas does not require a JP to be an attorney in good standing. However, JPs are required to be well versed in the law and take mandatory classes to retain their office. New JPs are required to take 80 hours of legal, state-mandated classes the first year, and 20 hours each year thereafter during their tenure in office. Sections 18 and 19 of Article V of the Texas Constitution, as well as Chapters 27 and 28 of the Texas Government Code, outline the duties of these Courts and their officers. Under Section 18, the number of JPs and associated constables is dependent on the size of the county. For counties with populations less than 18,000, the entire county shall be a one JP precinct, unless the Commissioners' Court determines that more are needed, in which case the court can divide the county into no more than four JP precincts. For counties with populations at least 18,000 but less than 50,000, the number of JP precincts shall be no less than two nor more than eight. For counties with populations 50,000 or greater, the number of JP precincts shall be no less than four nor more than eight. In any county with population less than 150,000, if any precinct contains a city with 18,000 or more population, that precinct shall have two JPs. In any county with population 150,000 or greater, each JP precinct may have more than one JP. Special provisions apply to Chambers and Randall counties and to Mills, Reagan, and Roberts. Section 19 sets forth the minimum jurisdiction of the JP court. Original jurisdiction in criminal matters of misdemeanor cases punishable by fine only, exclusive jurisdiction in civil matters where the amount in controversy is $200 or less, and such other jurisdiction as may be provided by law. Under this provision, the Legislature has raised the top limit on civil matters to $10,000 and assigned the JP courts, among others, the right to hear cases involving eviction as well as cases involving foreclosure and liens against personal property where the amount falls within the revised JP Court's jurisdiction. JP cases are appealed to the county court level; the appeal results in a trial de novo. In criminal cases, cases beginning in justice court cannot be appealed beyond the county level court unless the fine is more than $100 or a constitutional matter is asserted. In smaller counties without a coroner, the JP has the duty to perform inquests. The JP is also called out for any unattended deaths in the county. A JP in a large precinct in a large county will work 5 days a week, 8 or more hours daily. Their duties will include, but are not necessarily limited to the following: trials of civil matters, both to a 6-person jury and to the bench, with an amount in controversy not exceeding $20,000.00. Trials of criminal matters involving traffic violations and class C misdemeanors punishable by fine only. Pre-trial motion dockets and show-cause hearings are held, and all discovery must be approved by the Judge in advance in civil cases. All criminal matters are controlled by the rules of criminal procedure and evidence. A much more restricted and smaller set of rules apply in civil matters unless, in the Judge's discretion, it is believed to be in the best interests of justice to apply the standard rules of evidence and procedure. The court has the exclusive jurisdiction of evictions. A Texas JP Judge will also magistrate prisoners and set bail. The Judge will hear juvenile violations such as truancy, underage drinking and smoking. Warrants of Arrest, Alias, Search and Capias Profine are issued. Protective Orders can be issued and result in jail time if violated. Several administrative matters are heard including the finding of a Dangerous Dog, Occupational Drivers License and tow hearings. Many writs are issued such as writs of re-entry to apartments, possession of realty and to reinstate utilities a landlord may have turned off. A JP has contempt power of $100 and up to 3 days in jail per occurrence. A JP is also authorized to perform marriage ceremonies. In Vermont, justices are elected officials, serving two-year terms. They are elected from each town or city within a county, and the number of justices elected from each municipality varies based on population, from as few as 3 or 5, to as many as 12 or 15. They generally serve as election, poll, and town meeting officials, and sit on the boards of civil authority and tax abatement within their municipalities. When assembled as the board of civil authority, they have the authority to decide, in the first instance, election disputes and disagreements about whether a voter should be registered. When the assessed value of property for real estate tax purposes is appealed to the board of civil authority, at least three board members are appointed to inspect the property. They may perform civil marriages throughout the state and are eligible to serve as notaries without payment of the usual registration fee. Justices may also serve as a magistrate when commissioned by the Supreme Court. The option to serve as a magistrate has never been invoked and likely never will be; in June 2019 Associate Justice of the Vermont Supreme Court Marilyn Skoglund described the idea of commissioning a justice of the peace as an actual magistrate as a truly frightening idea and stated that she had never heard of such a thing actually happening. In Wyoming, Esther Hobart Morris became the first female justice of the peace in the United States in 1870. She began her tenure as justice in South Pass City, Wyoming, on the 14th of February 1870, serving a term of nearly 9 months. The Sweetwater County Board of County Commissioners appointed Morris as justice of the peace after the previous justice, R.S. Barr, resigned in protest of Wyoming Territory's passage of the women's suffrage amendment in December 1869. In many states, the office of justice of the peace has been abolished or transferred to another court, such as the magistrate court. Cases in large cities may be heard in a municipal court which has jurisdiction only within that city. Most efforts to abolish the office of justice of the peace have been led by the American Bar Association, which views non-lawyer judges as no longer necessary, as there are now far more persons with formal legal education than in the past when justices of the peace were first used. California formerly had justice of the peace courts staffed by lay judges, but began phasing them out after a landmark 1974 decision in which the Supreme Court of California unanimously held that it was a violation of federal due process to allow a nonlawyer to preside over a criminal trial which could result in incarceration of the defendant. The court specifically recognized that in the aftermath of Gideon v. Wainwright, it was unreasonable to allow a case to be tried before a layperson incapable of understanding the legal arguments of the defense attorney to whom the defendant was entitled. In 1994, the remaining justice courts were consolidated into the municipal courts by the passage of Proposition 191, and in 1998, the electorate passed Proposition 220, which authorized the merger of the remaining municipal courts into the superior courts. However, the judges affected by each merger in each county had to affirmatively consent and the municipal court judges then had to formally become superior court judges. This process was completed on the 8th of February 2001, when California's last four municipal court judges were sworn in as judges of Kings County Superior Court. Under current California law, all California judges must be licensed attorneys at the time they take office.
Global Variations
In Australia, a justice of the peace is typically someone of good stature in the community who is authorized to witness and sign statutory declarations and affidavits and to certify copies of original documents. There are no Federal level JPs in Australia, as this power is retained by the State Governments and devolved to the Territory Governments. Where a Federal Government document or task requires the services of a JP, the rules of each individual State or Territory government will dictate if they have the authority to assist. Criteria for appointment vary widely, depending on the state. In the Australian Capital Territory, there is only the single level of Justice of the Peace. They are appointed on an as-needed basis, and a potential appointee must be an Australian Citizen, and both a resident of, and enrolled on the electoral roll, of the territory. They must also not be an undischarged bankrupt, and consent to criminal history checks being undertaken prior to appointment. Appointment is for life, unless a JP resigns, is suspended/dismissed from office, or resides outside of the ACT for a period of more than 12 consecutive months. JPs for the ACT also cover the Australian External Territory of Norfolk Island, and the Internal Jervis Bay Territory, subject to local law variations in those two jurisdictions. In New South Wales, the most common functions performed by a justice of the peace are to witness the signing of a statutory declaration, witness the signing of an affidavit and certify that a copy of an original document is a true copy. JPs are appointed by the Governor of New South Wales for five-year terms. They are volunteers, who come from all walks of life and all sections of the community. JPs are people who are trusted to be honest, careful and impartial when performing the functions of a JP. They must not charge a fee or accept a gift for providing JP services, tell people what to write in a statutory declaration, write it for them, or give them legal advice. Ways to find a JP in New South Wales include searching the JP Public Register, which lists all JPs for each postcode area and provides a telephone contact number for JPs who serve the community directly, and checking a public listing of scheduled JP services to find when JPs are available at scheduled times and locations across the state. In the early years of the Colony of New South Wales, justices of the peace had far greater responsibilities and broader roles in the administration of justice than now. In Queensland, a justice of the peace qualified has the additional powers to issue search warrants and arrest warrants and, in conjunction with another justice of the peace qualified, constitute a magistrates' court for exercising powers to remand defendants in custody, grant bail, and adjourn court hearings. Some justices are appointed as justice of the peace magistrates' court, usually in remote Aboriginal communities, to perform many of the functions that might otherwise fall to a stipendiary magistrate. In Queensland, a lawyer may be appointed as a Justice of the Peace without further education or qualification and has the full powers of a JP. A commissioner for declarations has powers limited to witnessing documents, witnessing statutory declarations, witnessing affidavits, witnessing and administering oaths and affirmations. The first woman to become a JP in Queensland was Matilda Maud Hennessey of Mackay on the 24th of April 1918. In South Australia, there are two types of justices: justice of the peace and special justices. A justice of the peace in South Australia is typically someone of good stature in the community who is authorized to witness and sign statutory declarations, affidavits, waiver rights, search warrants, drug warrants, divorce documents, and to certify copies of original documents and to witness the signing of power of attorney and guardianship documents, providing the JP is satisfied with the capability of the signatory. A Special Justice is a higher level of justice of the peace in South Australia; they sit on the bench of the magistrates' court hearing cases in the petty sessions division. The South Australian Attorney-General has set up a web site to locate justices of the peace. The majority of metropolitan and many regional Councils have a rotational justice of the peace in residence at nominated times. South Australia's first women justices were appointed in July 1915. In Victoria, justices of the peace and bail justices, who are also volunteers, are appointed to serve a semi-judicial function in all areas of the Victorian community. The main official roles in the Victorian community include witnessing statutory declarations, witnessing affidavits and hearing bail matters outside court hours. The first woman to become a JP in Victoria was Mary Catherine Rogers who, in 1920, became the first woman councillor in Australia when she was elected in the City of Richmond. Justices of the peace provide a service to the community as independent witnesses of statutory declarations, powers of attorney and affidavits. JPs, who are also volunteers, are selected through an extensive interview, written exam and practical testing. They are recommended by the state attorney-general and appointed by the governor-in-council, and it is their job to authorize and witness statutory declarations and affidavits within the state of Victoria. As of August 2022, there are currently around 3500 JPs and bail justices in Victoria, who collectively sign more than 1.5 million documents and assist more than 350,000 people each year. Justices of the Peace and Bail Justices may use the post-nominals JP and BJ respectively after their names. The primary role of a bail justice within Victoria is to hear bail applications under the Bail Act 1977 and to hear applications for Interim Accommodation Orders for children under the Children, Youth and Families Act 2005. Bail justices can also witness Victorian statutory declarations and affidavits. Bail justices are appointed for terms of four years and may be re-appointed repeatedly until they attain 70 years of age. They are often required to attend call outs and rule on bail applications or protection applications for children in danger on weekends and late at night when the courts are closed. Candidates must successfully complete a three-day training course run by the Department of Justice. Bail justices, also have some limited powers under federal legislation, including the power to conduct interstate extradition hearings and extending question time for federal police. In Western Australia, justices of the peace are appointed by the Governor who authorizes them to carry out a wide range of official administrative and judicial duties in the community. As well as presiding in the Magistrates Court, justices of the peace are regularly called upon by the WA Police to sign search warrants and authorize the issuing of summonses. The administrative tasks include witnessing affidavits and documents such as wills and statutory declarations. Visiting justices are a special group of justices of the peace, appointed to preside over cases within the prison system. JPs for Western Australia also cover the Australian External Territories of Cocos Islands and Christmas Island. In Canada, justices of the peace play a role in the administration of justice at the provincial level. Justices are generally appointed by the lieutenant governors of Canada's provinces, and by the commissioners of Canada's territories, on the advice of their relevant premier or Attorney General. Canada made the second appointment in the then British Empire of a woman as a magistrate, namely Emily Murphy, who was sworn in as a police magistrate in the Women's Court of the City of Edmonton on the 19th of June 1916. In British Columbia, pursuant to the Provincial Court Act, all judges are justices of the peace, and hence all of them are peace officers. In the Northwest Territories, justices may hear summary conviction matters, municipal by-laws, and certain criminal matters. However, in more populated provinces justices usually preside over bail hearings and provincial offences courts. When not in a court session, a justice can perform other judicial functions, such as issuing search warrants. In Ontario, justices of the peace can preside over judicial interim release bail hearings and other criminal hearings. JPs can also exercise jurisdiction over provincial regulatory offences and municipal by-law prosecutions. JPs must retire by reaching the age of 65, but may continue working until 75 subject to the approval of the Chief Justice of the Ontario Court of Justice. In Quebec, there are two types of justices of the peace, administrative justice of the peace and presiding justice of the peace. Administrative justice of the peace are court officers appointed by the Minister of Justice, and perform duties such as receiving criminal informations and issuing warrants. Presiding justice of the peace are appointed by commission under the Great Seal, and can try some criminal matters and issue warrants. They are appointed from advocates of at least ten years' standing and serve full-time until the age of 70. In Yukon, justices of the peace are lay officers of the court. They sit in the Justice of the Peace Court, which is part of the Territorial Court of Yukon. In Hong Kong, the historical functions of justices of the peace have been replaced by full-time, legally qualified magistrates. Nowadays, justices of the peace are essentially titles of honour given by the Government to community leaders, and to certain officials while they are in their terms of offices. They have no judicial functions, and their main duties include visiting prisons, institutions for young offenders and drug addicts, psychiatric hospitals, remand homes, places of refuge, reception and detention centres, administering statutory declarations, and serving as members of advisory panels. They also monitor the drawing of the Mark Six to ensure fairness. In India, justices of the peace exist, but no longer occupy a prominent post. One of the famous justices in India was Kavasji Jamshedji Petigara. In Ireland, justices of the peace existed prior to 1922, sitting in a bench under the supervision of resident magistrates at petty sessions to try minor offences summarily, and with a county court judge in his capacity of chairman of quarter sessions and jury to try more serious offences at quarter sessions. In the Irish Free State the position was effectively abolished by the District Justices Temporary Provisions Act 1923 and permanently abolished by the Courts of Justice Act 1924. Their judicial powers were replaced by full-time, salaried, legally qualified district justices now called district judges and their quasi-judicial powers by unpaid lay peace commissioners. However, the power of Peace Commissioners has been reduced following a number of Supreme Court Challenges. Even one Government Department stopped accepting Peace Commissioner signatures because there is no available updated register or reliable data base to confirm that the person signing the form as a witness is in fact a Peace Commissioner. In the absence of such verification being possible, the practice was changed to remove the risk of fraudulent activity and maintain the integrity of the process. In general, Peace Commissioners may sign statutory declarations, and may rarely issue summons and search warrants to the Garda Síochána. A peace commissioner can witness the signature of an affidavit. In addition Peace Commissioners can sign custody agreements between legal guardians in relation to visitation etc. These agreements are legally binding and can be altered only by a Judge in the regular courts. Peace Commissioners are appointed on the basis of good character and usually prominent standing in their local communities. In Jamaica, a justice of the peace, according to the Ministry of Justice, is a person of unquestionable integrity who seeks to promote and protect the rights of the individual and helps to provide justice to persons in a particular community. Additionally, the JP serves as a justice in petty court sessions, attends juvenile court sessions, issues summonses, considers applications for bail, explains and signs legal documents, sits on licensing panels, and gives counsel or advice. Any Jamaican citizen that can speak and write English is eligible to become a JP. Any club, organization, or citizen can recommend someone to become JP for a community. JPs are chosen under the Governor-General's discretion. In Malaysia, justices of the peace jaksa pendamai in Malay, also abbreviated JP have largely been replaced in magistrates' courts by legally qualified first-class stipendiary magistrates. However, state governments continue to appoint justices of the peace as honours. In 2004, some associations of justices of the peace pressed the federal government to allow justices of the peace to sit as second-class magistrates in order to reduce the backlog of cases in the courts. In New Zealand, the legal framework for the office of Justice of the Peace within New Zealand is derived from the Act of Parliament Justices of the Peace Act 1957, and subsequent amendments. There are two levels of this position within New Zealand: The standard level of Justice of the Peace, and a separate Judicial Justice of the Peace. Persons so appointed may use the post-nominals JP and JJP respectively. A JP who is retired may apply to the Secretary for Justice for permission to use the post-nominals JP retired. Appointment as a JP is for life, unless a voluntary resignation is tendered in writing, or a JP is suspended or dismissed from office due to misconduct, bankruptcy, or other specific reasons. A JP in New Zealand is someone of good stature in the community who is authorized to witness and sign a number of documents, including statutory declarations, affidavits, and producing certified copies of documents, amongst others. In some limited circumstances they may also perform citizenship ceremonies, and act as a Visiting Justice in prisons. They are nominated for office by local Members of Parliament and appointed by the Governor-General. They must take both the Oath of Allegiance and the Judicial Oath. If a local JP Federation determines that a need for one or more JJPs exists, they will issue a call for nominations to JPs in their territory. Following closure of nominations, a shortlist will be drawn up, and interviews undertaken. If a prospective applicant passes the interview stage, and the relevant training, exams, and assignments are successfully completed, they can be sworn in as a JJP. This means they can then be assigned to the bench in the relevant District Court to oversee minor criminal cases. These would involve tasks such as the exercise of powers to remand defendants in custody, grant bail, and adjourn court hearings. Appointment as a JJP is at the pleasure of the Secretary for Justice, generally for a minimum of 5 years, and for as long as there is a need in the area an individual resides. Should an individual move abroad, to an area of New Zealand where the service is no longer required, or the local area no longer requires it, the JJP appointment will be terminated. Prior to 2012, all JPs were able to issue search and arrest warrants, but with the passage of the NZ Act of Parliament Search and Surveillance Act 2012, this power was spun off to the separate position of Issuing Officer. Under the law, an Issuing Officer does not have to be a Justice of the Peace. Holders of some positions within the judicial system, such as Registrar or Deputy Registrar of a court, are Issuing Officers ex officio for the duration of their time in those roles. For a JP or JJP to exercise this power after 2012, they must apply to become an Issuing Officer separately. The application process involves a further training course and exam, followed by a vetting and approval process by the Attorney-General. Appointment as an Issuing Officer is for a maximum of three years, and may be renewed for a further three years at expiry as needed. On the 1st of October 2025, new amendments came into force as part of amendments to the Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters Act 1992, in support of New Zealand's accession to the Budapest Convention on Cybercrime. These amendments mean that some powers to issue search warrants and production orders arising from criminal matters in other countries that were previously available to Issuing Officers, are instead now reserved only to High Court Judges. In Pakistan, Sections 22, 22-A and 22-B of the Code of Criminal Procedure Code, 1898 provide for the appointment of justices of the peace by the provincial governments, their powers and duties respectively. However, seldom are justices of the peace appointed in Pakistan outside the judiciary. Session and additional session judges act as ex-officio justices of the peace as per Section 25 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898. An Ex-officio Justice of the Peace may issue appropriate directions to the police authorities concerned on a complaint regarding non-registration of a criminal case, transfer of investigation from one police officer to another, and neglect, failure or excess committed by a police authority in relation to its functions and duties. Such functions being quasi-judicial in nature could not be termed as executive, administrative or ministerial. It is pertinent to note however, as many academics have pointed out, that there is great utility in the appointment of such justices especially in rural areas where enmity between rival groups can lead to the inability of registration of cognizable offences and biased judicial proceedings. In Russia, the role of justice of the peace is not prominent in the modern legal system. In Singapore, the functions of Justices of the Peace have been replaced by full-time, legally qualified magistrates. JP in Singapore are appointed amongst outstanding individuals in Singapore who have made significant contributions in their professions, the public service, social services and the community at large by the President of the Republic of Singapore, under section 11(1) of the State Courts Act 1970 for a renewable five-year term. JP do not serve any judicial roles, rather they derive their functions from statute. Some examples of the functions, powers and duties of a Justice of the Peace includes: In accordance with the Prisons Act 1933, a JP who is appointed as a Visiting Justice may visit any Singapore prisons at any time to ascertain whether the prison regulations are adhered to. A JP may also upon receiving a report of an aggravated prison offence, investigate the charge and punish the prisoner if found guilty for up to 30 days confinement and 24 strokes of the cane. May under the Societies Act 1966, enter or authorize any police officer to enter any place if they believe that a meeting of an unlawful society is being held there. They may also issue a search warrant to seize any items connected to the unlawful society and warrant of arrest on any persons found in that place. Administer oaths under the Trade Marks Act 1998, Merchant Shipping Act 1995 and Parliamentary Elections Act 1954 and Presidential Elections Act 1991. Other roles of a JP includes being mediators in the State Courts of Singapore or marriage solemnisers in the Registry of Marriages. Newly appointed justices of the peace are required by Section 17 of the State Courts Act to take the oath of office and allegiance as set out in the schedule to the State Courts Act, before exercising the functions of their good office. The President may also revoke the appointment of any Justice of the Peace. In Sri Lanka, Justice of the Peace is an honorary post, with authorization to witness and sign statutory declarations and affidavits as well as certify documents. Persons appointed as a Justice of the Peace may use the post-nominal JP. Current appointments are made under the Judicature Act No 02 of 1978, by the Minister of Justice at his or her discretion by publishing a list in The Gazette and appointee taking oaths before a high court, district court judge or magistrate with registrar of the supreme court recording it. There are four types of appointments of Justice of the Peace: Justice of the Peace and Unofficial magistrate, Justice of the Peace for the Whole Island, Justice of the Peace for a Judicial District, and Justice of the Peace ex officio. Senior Attorney at laws are appointed as Justice of the Peace and Unofficial magistrates to preside in the absence of a sitting Magistrate. Any citizen of Sri Lanka can apply to the Ministry of Justice giving his or her credentials to be appointed as a justice of the peace. However, the applicant should be one who has served the public and carries out social service and should be of good standing. These JPs would be appointed with legal authority in all parts of the island or limited to a judicial district. The President of Sri Lanka and his or her officers are ex officio justices of the peace. There about 100,000 JPs in the island. The post was introduced in the island during the British colonial era by the Governor Frederick North in 1801 and was later reformed in 1871. Until 1938, appointments were made by the Governor, after which appointments were made by the Legal Secretary until 1947. After Ceylon gained its independence in 1948, appointments were made by the Governor General and the Minister of Justice. Justice of the Peace had the power to administer oaths and affirmations per the Courts Ordinance No. 1 on 1889 section 84 and they could formally appoint members of the public to act as special police officers in times of turmoil and riots. Since certain government officers were ex-officio justices of the peace, this allowed British colonial officers to appoint special police officers from the European planters in times of crisis such as the 1915 riots. The Village Councils Law No. 6 of 1964 made the Chairman of the Village Council an ex officio justices of the peace for that village area. In Tonga, for the first time, Justices of the Peace were authorized in 2014. JPs are appointed by the Crown, but the Lord Chief Justice regulates their duties and defines their powers. The first JPs were warranted with duties including granting bail; issuing search warrants and subpoenas; taking affidavits, declarations and oaths; and having the power to witness documents. Term of office is one year and officials can be reappointed. The initial 19 JPs appointed were: Aisea Ta'ofi and Sione Hinakau of Niuatoputapu; Inoke Tuaimei'api of Niuafo'ou; Siosiua Hausia from Eua; Sione Palu, Sione Fakahua, Me'ite Fukofuka and Kisione Taulani of Ha'apai; Salesi Kauvaka, Viliami Pasikala, Haniteli Fa'anunu, Meli Taufaeteau and Moleni Taufa from Vava'u; and Salote Fukofuka, Amelia Helu, Ofa Likiliki, Tevita Fakatou, Sioape Tu'iono and Semisi Tongia of Tongatapu.
The Modern Magistrate
In England and Wales, a magistrates' court is typically composed of a bench of usually three Justices of the Peace otherwise known as magistrates who dispense summary justice. They decide on offences which carry a community sentence, a prison sentence maximum of six months for any one offence, up to one year for multiple offences, or an unlimited fine. They are advised on points of law and procedure by a legally qualified justices' clerk and their assistants. In practice, JPs have a wide range of sentencing options, which include issuing fines, imposing community orders, or dealing with offences by means of a discharge. In more serious cases, where magistrates' consider that their sentencing powers are insufficient, they can send either-way offenders to the Crown Court for sentencing. Justices of the Peace are trained volunteers. No formal qualifications are required but magistrates need intelligence, common sense, integrity and the capacity to act fairly. Membership is widely spread throughout the local area and drawn from all walks of life following a rigorous selection process undertaken by a local advisory committee, who recommends to the Lord Chancellor those individuals who have demonstrated the five key qualities for appointment which are: awareness of social issues; maturity and understanding; reliability and commitment; understanding of documents and effective communication; and logical thinking. Justices of the Peace are trained volunteers, but those who are employed in some occupations, such as Police Officers, cannot be appointed due to potential conflict of interest. All new Justices of the Peace undergo comprehensive training before sitting. There is a mentoring program to help guide new appointees, with mentors being magistrates with at least three years' service. The training is delivered by the Judicial College and covers the necessary law and procedure required for their role. They continue to receive training throughout their judicial career, and are appraised every four years, every two years for a Presiding Justice, to check that they continue to remain competent in the role. Additional training is given to justices choosing to sit in the Youth Court, or those dealing with family matters. New JPs sit with mentors on at least six occasions during their first eighteen months. Justices of the Peace are unpaid appointees, but they may receive allowances to cover travelling expenses, subsistence, and loss of earnings for those not paid by their employer while sitting as a magistrate, up to £116.78 a day. Such person may sit at any magistrates' court in England and Wales, but in practice they are appointed to their local bench, a colloquial and legal term for the local court. Justices of the Peace often sit as a panel of three; two as a minimum in most cases, save for cases under the Single Justice Procedure. Many are members of the Magistrates' Association, which provides advice, training and represents magistrates. Justices of the Peace must sit for a minimum of 26 sessions half-days per year. An employer must, by law, allow a Justice of the Peace reasonable time off work to serve as such. The lead magistrate is known as a Presiding Justice and should be addressed in court as sir or ma'am or your worship, and the magistrates collectively as your worships. In writing they are their usual name followed by JP. Other magistrates on the bench are known as wingers. All three magistrates contribute equally to the decision-making and carry equal authority, but the Presiding Justice will speak on their behalf in open court. Magistrates' courts today can deal with lesser offences such as all summary offences, and some more serious triable either-way matters, but where the magistrates' deem that their sentencing powers are sufficient. However, all criminal cases start in the magistrates' court. They handle over 95% of the criminal cases in England and Wales and Northern Ireland. With more serious offences, magistrates are responsible for indictment and committal to the Crown Court, a task in former times dealt with by a grand jury. Magistrates also have a civil jurisdiction, such as a family jurisdiction, or appeals against matters relating to licensing. Although they had a licensing jurisdiction dealing liquor, betting and clubs licensing applications, this was transferred under the Licensing Act 2003 to local authorities. The magistrates now act in licensing matters only as an appeal court from the decisions of the local authority. Justices of the Peace are responsible for granting orders such as search warrants to the Police and other authorities. They were required to live within 15 miles of where they sit in case they were needed to sign a warrant after hours, but they were replaced with Local Justice Areas by the Courts Act 2003, meaning this is not formally required. Section 7 of the Courts Act 2003 states that There shall be a commission of the peace for England and Wales addressed generally, and not by name, to all such persons as may from time to time hold office as justices of the peace for England and Wales. Thus, every magistrate in England and Wales may act as a magistrate anywhere there. Cardiff Magistrates' Court is the only court in the country which deals with offences under the Companies Act 2006, such as for late filing of accounts or directors' offences. Westminster Magistrates' Court has special responsibilities for dealing with terrorism and extradition offences throughout the UK. The Courts Act 2003 provides the current framework for appointment of the justices, which is done by the Lord Chancellor in the name of sovereign. Justices can also be removed by the same mechanism. Before 1714, magistrates were liable to be approached at any time and in any place by people legally recognized as paupers, appealing for aid if parish authorities refused to provide any. It was relatively common for these magistrates to write out, on the spot, an order requiring aid to be granted. The magistracy is an ancient institution, dating in England from at least 1327. The role is underpinned by the principles of local justice and justice by one's peers. As at 2021, 56% of sitting magistrates were women, 13% were black, Asian and minority ethnic, and 82% aged above 50 as at the 1st of April 2021. In Scotland, within the Scottish legal system Justices of the Peace are trained volunteers who currently sit in the Justice of the Peace courts. These courts were introduced in 2009 as a replacement for the district courts established in 1975, which in turn replaced burgh police courts. Justices sit alone or in threes with a qualified legal assessor as convener or clerk of court. They handle many cases of breaches of the peace, drunkenness, minor assaults, petty theft, and offences under the Civic Government Scotland Act 1982. The maximum sentencing power of a justice of the peace is 60 days imprisonment, or a fine up to £2,500, or both, and the ability to disqualify drivers. In 2006, the Scottish Government announced its intention to unify the management of the sheriff and district courts in Scotland but retain lay justices, as part of its initiative to create a unified judiciary under the Lord President. Following the passage of the Criminal Proceedings etc. Reform Scotland Act 2007 the justice of the peace courts were implemented on a sheriffdom-by-sheriffdom basis. The Scottish Ministers may by order establish courts of summary criminal jurisdiction to be known as justice of the peace courts. In Glasgow, the volume of business required the employment of three solicitors as stipendiary magistrates who sat in place of the lay justices. The stipendiary magistrates' court had the same sentencing power as the summary sheriff court in summary proceedings, which was the ability to sentence an offender to up to one year in prison or fine them up to £5,000. Stipendiary magistrates were replaced by summary sheriffs. In Northern Ireland, the situation initially continued as it had in pre-1922 Ireland. However, justices of the peace no longer sat out of petty sessions after 1935 Summary Jurisdiction and Criminal Justice Act Northern Ireland 1935. Since then, magistrates' courts in Northern Ireland have consisted of legally qualified resident magistrates now known as district judges magistrates' courts sitting alone, except in cases involving children, where two lay panelists sat with the magistrate. Justices of the peace were confined to the power to conduct committal hearings, bind persons over to the peace, sign warrants, summons, and other official documents. They were appointed by the Lord Chancellor on the recommendation of a committee in each county court division. The Justice Northern Ireland Act 2002 introduced a new office of lay magistrate, to sit alongside resident magistrates at magistrates' courts in certain matters. Unlike in England and Wales, lay magistrate is the official title of the position, to distinguish from existing justices of the peace who do not sit in the magistrates' courts. The first lay magistrates were appointed in 2005. Two lay magistrates sit with the district judge magistrates' courts in criminal proceedings involving children replacing the former lay panelists and Family Proceedings Court matters. The district judge magistrates' courts, who is a barrister or solicitor of at least seven years standing, presides over the bench. Most criminal justice functions of JPs were transferred to lay magistrates. It is expected that there will be no further appointments of justices of the peace in Northern Ireland, although those already appointed retain the title and any functions not transferred to lay magistrate under the 2002 Act. In Belgium, the justices of the peace function as the small claims courts in the country's judicial system; they stand at the bottom of the Belgian judicial hierarchy and only handle civil cases. There is a justice of the peace in each judicial canton of Belgium, of which there are 187 in total as of 2017. The justices of the peace have original jurisdiction over cases in which the disputed amount does not exceed 5,000 euro as of September 2018, except for the matters over which another court or tribunal has exclusive jurisdiction. In addition, the justices of the peace have original jurisdiction over a number of matters irrespective of the disputed amount, such as cases involving the renting or leasing of real estate, evictions, easement, land consolidation, consumer credit or unpaid utility bills. The justices of the peace also have original jurisdiction in certain aspects of family law, most notably legal guardianships for incapacitated seniors, and the involuntary commitment of the mentally ill to psychiatric facilities. The judgments made by the justices of the peace can, with some exceptions, be appealed to the tribunals of first instance. In the United Kingdom, the history of the justice of the peace is deeply rooted in the concept of local governance. Before 1714, magistrates were liable to be approached at any time and in any place by people legally recognized as paupers, appealing for aid if parish authorities refused to provide any. It was relatively common for these magistrates to write out, on the spot, an order requiring aid to be granted. The magistracy is an ancient institution, dating in England from at least 1327. The role is underpinned by the principles of local justice and justice by one's peers. As at 2021, 56% of sitting magistrates were women, 13% were black, Asian and minority ethnic, and 82% aged above 50 as at the 1st of April 2021. In the United States, the justice of the peace has evolved differently in each state, with some states retaining the office while others have abolished it. In many states, the office of justice of the peace has been abolished or transferred to another court, such as the magistrate court. Cases in large cities may be heard in a municipal court which has jurisdiction only within that city. Most efforts to abolish the office of justice of the peace have been led by the American Bar Association, which views non-lawyer judges as no longer necessary, as there are now far more persons with formal legal education than in the past when justices of the peace were first used. California formerly had justice of the peace courts staffed by lay judges, but began phasing them out after a landmark 1974 decision in which the Supreme Court of California unanimously held that it was a violation of federal due process to allow a nonlawyer to preside over a criminal trial which could result in incarceration of the defendant. The court specifically recognized that in the aftermath of Gideon v. Wainwright, it was unreasonable to allow a case to be tried before a layperson incapable of understanding the legal arguments of the defense attorney to whom the defendant was entitled. In 1994, the remaining justice courts were consolidated into the municipal courts by the passage of Proposition 191, and in 1998, the electorate passed Proposition 220, which authorized the merger of the remaining municipal courts into the superior courts. However, the judges affected by each merger in each county had to affirmatively consent and the municipal court judges then had to formally become superior court judges. This process was completed on the 8th of February 2001, when California's last four municipal court judges were sworn in as judges of Kings County Superior Court. Under current California law, all California judges must be licensed attorneys at the time they take office.