Italian campaign of 1796–1797
On the 27th of March 1796, Napoleon Bonaparte summoned three senior generals to his headquarters in Nice. Louis Alexandre Berthier served as chief of staff while Jean Mathieu Philibert Sérurier, Pierre François Charles Augereau, and Andrea Masséna arrived to receive orders for the upcoming campaign. Joachim Murat stood as aide-de-camp alongside Major Jean-Andoche Junot and Napoleon's brother Louis Bonaparte. Auguste Marmont also attended this critical meeting that would launch a series of victories across Italy.
The young general had climbed from obscurity through the siege of Toulon in 1793 where he earned promotion to brigadier general. He later inspected artillery in the Army of Italy under General Pierre Jadart du Merbion with representatives Augustin de Robespierre and Antoine Christophe Saliceti seconded to him. The Army of Italy faced dire conditions in spring 1794 when troops remained trapped between Piedmontese forces to the north and Royal Navy blockades to the south. Napoleon proposed seizing Oneglia to reestablish contact with Genoa while outflanking Sardinian armies entrenched around Saorgio.
His plans gained approval from War Minister Lazare Carnot and the Committee of Public Safety on the 5th of June 1794. French forces advanced eastward gathering near Cuneo while another column routed Piedmontese troops around Colle di Tenda. However political upheaval halted progress when Maximilien Robespierre died during the coup d'état of the 27th of July 1794. Napoleon himself became implicated due to his friendly relations with Augustin Robespierre and was arrested by order of Saliceti on the 6th of August.
Saliceti eventually exonerated Bonaparte after Austrian troops concentrated in the Bormida Valley threatening to retake Savona. The Thermidorian Convention authorized attacks despite Carnot's veto remaining in force. On the 19th of September 1794 French forces went on the offensive taking Austrians by surprise who retreated to Dego where they were narrowly defeated on the 21st of September. After being sent back to Toulon for Corsica invasion duties, Napoleon resigned in May 1795 only to be recalled eight days later when Austrians pushed 30,000 soldiers back to Loano under General François Christophe Kellermann.
Napoleon moved his headquarters from Nice to Albenga then to Savona on the 9th of April 1796. He identified Carcare as the weak link between Austrian and Piedmontese armies aiming to conquer this position before attacking isolated Colli. Masséna's division marched to Cadibona joining Augereau who proceeded through Tovo San Giacomo for a joint attack on Carcare. A diversionary move by Sérurier occurred in Ormea while 6,800 soldiers under generals Francois Macquard and Pierre Dominique Garnier advanced toward Cuneo.
An unexpected Austrian attack on Voltri forced Napoleon to begin operations four days early on the 11th of April instead of the planned the 15th of April. Beaulieu ordered men to advance through Bocchetta Pass and Turchino Pass bypassing Voltri simultaneously with Argenteau penetrating into Savona isolating Masséna and Laharpe. The bulk of Austrian forces moved to Alessandria and Val Bormida where support continued for Colli and Argenteau. Cervoni noticed numerical inferiority and ordered retreat allowing Napoleon to start his attack plan knowing Beaulieu's positions.
Argenteau received orders only on the 11th of April and before he could rally troops, Laharpe and Masséna stopped his attempts at action on the 12th of April during the Battle of Montenotte. This campaign lasted just two weeks signaling surrender of the Piedmontese. Due to Augereau's delay Masséna had to march to Carcare occupying the position before Austrians arrived. Together with Berthier Napoleon decided that on the 13th of April Masséna would take Dego with half his men blocking Austrian communications while remaining soldiers supported by Augereau marched against Piedmontese at Ceva.
Sérurier arrived from Ormea hoping to concentrate 25,000 soldiers to defeat Piedmontese. Six battalions and all cavalry under General Henri Christian Michel Stengel formed tactical reserve at Carcare. On the 13th of April French found victory in battle of Millesimo but Augereau was stopped in Cosseria by 900 Austro-Piedmontese grenadiers perched in a castle blocking view of Ceva. Masséna also faced hindrance from large Austrian group in Dego so on the 14th of April Napoleon left one brigade in Cosseria sending reinforcements to Dego which was occupied midday taking 5,000 Austrians prisoner along with 19 cannons.
Napoleon ordered Sérurier to lay siege to Mantua on the 3rd of June then turned attention to Papal States of Pope Pius VI and Grand Duchy of Tuscany of Ferdinand III. Together with Augereau and Vaubois he took possession of Fort Urbano on the 23rd of June whose cannons were sent to Mantua after persuading Castello Sforzesco veterans to surrender on the 29th of June. Florence and Ferrara opened doors spontaneously while Vaubois occupied Livorno depriving Royal Navy of Mediterranean base.
Before that Pius VI obtained armistice of Bologna exchanging occupation of Ancona, Ferrara and Bologna for payment including works of art. The French reconcentrated around Mantua but specter of dangerous Austrian counter-offensive coming from Tyrol convinced Bonaparte to lift siege on the 31st of July falling back to better positions. New Austrian commander Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser gathered around 50,000 soldiers in Trento beginning advance to liberate Mantua.
On the 29th of July Austrian avant-gardes forced Masséna to retreat beyond Mincio abandoning Verona while Peter Vitus von Quosdanovich conquered Salò stopped by Augereau in Brescia on the 1st of August. Napoleon faced possibility that Wurmser and Quosdanovich would reunite forces south of Lake Garda obtaining overwhelming numerical superiority which did not happen because Wurmser lingered near Valeggio sul Mincio from the 30th of July to the 2nd of August ensuring effective lifting of siege allowing time for French organization.
On 3 and the 4th of August Quosdanovich's 18,000 men defeated by Masséna in Battle of Lonato while Augereau heroically blocked Wurmser in Castiglione delle Stiviere. Masséna moved to Augereau's left with forced march while Sérurier's division after driving expedition of 4,000 Austrians back into Mantua maneuvered to fall left of Wurmser who suffered crushing defeat at Battle of Castiglione on the 5th of August forcing Wurmser to retreat to Tyrol.
A peculiarity of the French army was speed of movement dictated by limited resources available forcing soldiers to live at expense of occupied territories without long cartloads of food. In 1796 Italian army comprised approximately 63,000 personnel compared to 106,000 in 1792 though only 37,600 ready for immediate use plus approximately 20,000 soldiers of Army of Alps. These soldiers were demoralized dispersed along coastal road from Nice to Savona dangerously exposed from sea to Royal Navy hills to Waldensian guerrillas mountains to Austrian army.
Food ration deficit remained chronic while pay lagged several months behind. Some demi-brigades hosted royalist councils and on the 25th of March 1796 two battalions mutinied in Nice despite these hardships Napoleon maintained operational tempo through rapid decision-making and forced marches. He exploited local resources allowing his forces to sustain campaigns far beyond traditional supply lines that had paralyzed previous armies.
The Directory's original orders required pushing into Milanese area with secondary attack against Acqui and Ceva not further antagonizing Piedmontese government whose population partially supported revolutionary ideas. Bonaparte considered conquest of Piedmont indispensable insisting so much that Directory corrected orders on the 6th of March 1796 authorizing him to pursue enemy beyond Po River taking fortresses of Asti and Valenza after seizing Cuneo area.
Napoleon demonstrated ability to adapt plans rapidly when circumstances changed. When Alvinczy attacked he immediately shifted focus from Arcole bridge to Adige line then back again depending on intelligence about Vaubois front. His use of trumpeters and guides to simulate large unit approach at Arcole deceived Austrians into retreating northwards giving Augereau opportunity to reunite with Masséna in free Arcole.
Strategic reality proved more complex than military operations alone as demands for war contributions created widespread discontentment among Italian states led by Pope conspiring to expel French from peninsula. Pope planned for 30,000 Neapolitans to fight Bonaparte courting Sardinia Modena and Venice to join coalition. Napoleon struck first occupying Duchy of Modena and Reggio installing military base in Genoa overawing Venice with demonstrations concluding Franco-Sicilian-Neapolitan treaty on the 10th of October isolating Pope.
On the 15th of October Transpadane Republic born in Milan immediately followed by Cispadane Republic merging June 1797 creating Cisalpine Republic though these efforts engendered hostility unable ensuring political stability alone. Successes inspired jealousy among civilian officers following army sending damning reports to Paris claiming goal was becoming King of Italy despite power prestige earned up point unlikely surviving military setback.
After fall of Mantua sealed French control northern Italy same day Sérurier watched Wurmser parade out Bonaparte gathered 9,000 men presenting himself in Romagna forcing Pius VI sign Treaty of Tolentino securing large sum money continuing war against Austria region of Romagna ceded Papal States. As Austrians beaten not completely defeated Archduke Charles Habsburg-Teschen gathering army again facing French.
In May 1797 Bonaparte fought short war conquering Venice leading fall republic after Leoben terms granted Austria Republic Venice despite neutral party status during conflict. Celebrations France over peace news Napoleon's pre-emptive argument Paris threat going politics should Directory reject convinced acceptance. More alarming elections France saw conservatives gain supermajority legislature Tulard page 27.
February 1797 Directory changed strategy assigning men resources Napoleon detriment German front placing hopes happy end war Corsican general. Not Bonaparte plan wait Archduke Charles gather another 50,000 soldiers Friuli Tyrol. French general now had 60,000 men leaving 10,000 under Joubert command Tyrol event enemy attack primary objective advancing two columns joining valley Drava River converge toward Vienna.
First French generals move Masséna Guieu Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte Sérurier advanced without difficulties occupying Primolano the 1st of March. On the 10th of March Italian army set off cutting four possible retreat routes Tagliamento valley Isonzo Tarvisio Ljubljana Klagenfurt Mura river valley main attack nucleus made 32,000 Frenchmen heading Valvasone covered left by Masséna's 11,000 men.
On the 16th of March French led General Bernadotte forded Tagliamento capturing 500 Austrians 6 cannons. Archduke Charles ordered retreat Udine French continued advance engaging Austrian Lusignan Tarvisio reinforced three divisions failed lose city together 32 cannons 5,000 men while Bernadotte pursued rest Austrian army Ljubljana General Dugua entered Trieste result maneuvers battles Archduke Charles lost 15,000 men the 25th of March first campaign against Bonaparte.
To make worse Austrians meantime Joubert column Tyrol managed take Bolzano Bressanone paving way Klagenfurt happily reached the 29th of March Masséna Guieu Chabot place once again ill Sérurier. At point Napoleon took decision leave lines communication unprotected ordering Joubert Bernadotte Victor concentrate Klagenfurt reinforcements needed march Vienna strong detachments left guard flanks French deployment awaiting General Moreau attack Rhine showing sign wanting take action.
At this point Napoleon took decision to leave lines communication unprotected ordering Joubert Bernadotte Victor concentrate Klagenfurt awaiting General Moreau attack Rhine who showed no sign wanting take action. To stall French occupied Leoben present-day Styria the 7th of April 1797 show strength induce Archduke Charles accept suspension hostilities advanced the 31st of March. With vanguard reaching Semmering Charles signed five-day truce the 7th of April agreement did not improve situation because Moreau still yet gone offensive furthermore revolts developing Tyrol Venice minding events obtained another five-day truce the 13th of April 16th without waiting plenipotentiary Directory put forward series points Peace Leoben Austrians accepted signed the 18th of April 1797 Italian campaign ended.
Directory shocked terms Leoben particular controversy Austria receive Republic Venice despite neutral party conflict May 1797 Bonaparte fought short war conquer Venice leading fall republic celebrations France news peace Napoleon's pre-emptive argument Paris threat going politics should Directory reject convinced acceptance. More alarming elections France saw conservatives gain supermajority legislature Tulard page 27 possibility restoration French monarchy Austrians dragging feet lasting peace treaty sent troops Augereau Paris prepared renewed war Italy.
On the 4th of September 1797 document supplied Napoleon treasonous activities Jean-Charles Pichegru then-President Council Five Hundred backing troops General Lazare Hoche Augereau Directory felt strong enough purge legislature Coup 18 Fructidor. Bonaparte no intention implicating directly instead sent aide camp Antoine de Lavalette observe events Paris learning public reaction coup negative distanced himself nevertheless coup ended threat Bourbon restoration time compelled Austrians conclude final peace terms ignoring Directory order give up Venice absent Directory plenipotentiary personally signed Treaty Campo Formio the 17th of October 1797 bringing War First Coalition end.
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Common questions
When did Napoleon Bonaparte summon his senior generals to begin the Italian campaign of 1796, 1797?
Napoleon Bonaparte summoned three senior generals to his headquarters in Nice on the 27th of March 1796. This meeting included Louis Alexandre Berthier as chief of staff and generals Jean Mathieu Philibert Sérurier, Pierre François Charles Augereau, and Andrea Masséna.
What were the specific dates for the Battle of Montenotte during the Italian campaign of 1796, 1797?
The Battle of Montenotte took place on the 12th of April 1796 when French forces stopped Austrian attempts at action. This engagement was part of a two-week campaign that signaled the surrender of the Piedmontese army.
How many soldiers comprised the Army of Italy in 1796 compared to 1792?
The Army of Italy in 1796 comprised approximately 63,000 personnel while the force numbered 106,000 in 1792. Only 37,600 men from the 1796 total were ready for immediate use alongside approximately 20,000 soldiers of the Army of Alps.
When did Napoleon Bonaparte sign the Treaty of Campo Formio ending the War of the First Coalition?
Napoleon Bonaparte signed the Treaty of Campo Formio on the 17th of October 1797. This agreement brought the War of the First Coalition to an end after Austria accepted terms previously presented at Leoben.
Which cities did Pope Pius VI exchange for an armistice during the Italian campaign of 1796, 1797?
Pope Pius VI obtained an armistice of Bologna by exchanging occupation of Ancona, Ferrara and Bologna for payment including works of art. These territories were subsequently occupied by French forces as part of the broader campaign strategy.