Invasion of Portugal (1807)

• 1. Napoleonic Ultimatum And Treaty

  ›

  On the 19th of July 1807, Napoleon ordered his Portuguese ambassador to inform that country to close its ports to British shipping by the 1st of September. The Emperor's ire was provoked because Portugal was Britain's oldest ally in Europe. Britain found new opportunities for trade with Portugal's colony in Brazil. The Royal Navy often used Lisbon's port in operations against France. He wished to seize Portugal's fleet and end the flow of goods. Crown Prince John failed to comply with the Continental System that excluded British trade. On the 2nd of August the 1st Corps of the Gironde Army of Observation was officially brought into being. General of Division Jean-Andoche Junot took command shortly after. The First French Empire placed all Portuguese shipping in its ports under embargo. On the 23rd of September, the Emperor made his intentions clear when he publicly threatened to depose the Braganzas. Meanwhile, on the 12th of August 1807 the French and Spanish ambassadors delivered their ultimata to the Prince Regent of Portugal. The notes required that John must declare war on Great Britain. They demanded he put his fleet at France and Spain's disposal. He had to seize all British trade in his ports. All British subjects were to be arrested. John agreed to suspend diplomatic relations with Britain and close his ports. He shrank from seizing British merchants and their goods. This was deemed inadequate by Napoleon and the French and Spanish ambassadors requested their passports. They left the country on the 30th of September.

• 2. French Invasion Force Composition

  ›

  Junot's 24,918-man corps consisted of one cavalry division under General of Division François Étienne de Kellermann. Three infantry divisions followed under Generals of Division Henri François Delaborde, Louis Henri Loison, and Jean-Pierre Travot. Junot's chief of staff was General of Brigade Paul Thiébault. Kellermann's 1,754-strong division included one squadron each of the 26th Chasseurs à Cheval. It contained the 1st Dragoon Regiment with 261 men. The 3rd Dragoon Regiment held 236 soldiers. The 4th Dragoon Regiment numbered 262 troopers. Five other regiments made up the rest of this force. The cavalry was divided into two brigades under Generals of Brigade Pierre Margaron and Antoine Maurin. Delaborde's 7,848-man 1st Division included the 1st Battalion of the 4th Swiss Regiment. Six French battalions joined these Swiss troops. These were the 3rd Battalion of the 15th Line Infantry Regiment. The 2nd Battalion of the 47th Line had 1,210 men. The 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 70th Line totaled 2,299 soldiers. Loison's 8,481-strong 2nd Division included the 2nd Battalion of the 2nd Swiss Regiment. Seven French units formed the core of his command. Travot's 5,538-man 3rd Division comprised the Hanoverian Legion. Artillerymen, sappers, train drivers, and other personnel numbered 1,297. Out of the 30,000 men who eventually served in Junot's army, only about 17,000 were veterans.

• 3. Portuguese Military Weakness And Corruption

  ›

  The Portuguese army had been modernized in 1762 by William, Count of Schaumburg-Lippe. The army's administration soon became corrupt. Colonels and captains collected pay and supplies from the government for their soldiers. But the temptation to profit from this arrangement proved irresistible. Poorly paid officers often pocketed funds for soldiers who were on the muster rolls but absent or non-existent. Graft and embezzlement led to understrength units. Cavalrymen went without horses. Regimental depots lacked supplies. During the brief War of the Oranges in 1801 the weakness of the Portuguese army became manifest. In the wake of that conflict, each of the twenty-four line infantry regiments had a second battalion added. Company strength was raised from 116 to 150 soldiers. The twelve regiments of line cavalry were each increased to 470 troopers. Their cuirasses were discarded. The number of 989-man artillery regiments was increased from three to four. Ten fortress artillery companies were established. The Portuguese army's 48,396-man nominal strength included 36,000 line infantrymen. It also held 5,640 line cavalrymen and 3,956 artillerists. After 1801, the previous system of abuses continued so that the army may have numbered as few as 20,000 men in 1807.

• 4. The March To Lisbon And Royal Flight

  ›

  On the 12th of November 1807, Junot's corps entered Salamanca in western Spain after marching about 300 miles in 25 days. Unknown to their Spanish allies, the French engineers were secretly taking notes about all fortresses. On that day, Junot received new orders urging him to hurry. Napoleon decided to speed up the invasion timetable. He instructed Junot to move west from Alcántara along the Tagus valley to Portugal. The march south from Ciudad Rodrigo to Alcántara via the Perales Pass was accomplished in five days. Cold rain fell during this difficult journey. Half of the army's horses died on this rough road through hills and ravines. One-quarter of the soldiers straggled away. All but six artillery pieces were left behind. At Alcántara, Junot appropriated ammunition and provisions from the Spanish troops guarding the bridge across the Tagus. On the 19th of November 1807, Junot set out for Lisbon. The road along the Tagus valley was a mere track through a rocky wilderness. Castelo Branco was the only substantial town in the area. Amid the continual rain, the advance guard limped into Abrantes on the 23rd of November. By this time, half of the soldiers were straggling or marauding. Without a single cannon or cavalryman, 1,500 French troops staggered into Lisbon on the 30th of November. Their cartridges were soaked and their uniforms in tatters. There was no opposition.

• 5. Harsh Occupation And Economic Plunder

  ›

  When Junot raised the French flag on Lisbon's public buildings on the 13th of December, a riot broke out. Mounted troops were sent into the streets to disperse the mob with force. As one of his first acts, Junot disbanded the Portuguese army by discharging all its soldiers with less than one year and more than six years of service. Two Portuguese units were employed by the French in the 2nd of August 1808 assault during the First Siege of Zaragoza. Junot did his best to calm the situation by trying to keep his troops under control. However, his task was undercut by new orders from Napoleon. Junot was instructed to seize the property of the 15,000 persons who had fled to Brazil. He had to levy a 100 million franc fine on the nation. The refugees had carried off almost half of the specie in Portugal. The French were barely able to raise enough money to maintain the occupation army. Nevertheless, the harsh taxes caused bitter resentment among the population. By January 1808 there were executions of persons who resisted the exactions of the French. The situation was dangerous, but most of the country's leaders had gone to Brazil.

• 6. Spanish Uprising And The End Of Control

  ›

  Solano's Spanish column belatedly invaded Portugal on the 2nd of December 1807 while Taranco occupied Porto on the 13th of December. The only resistance was offered by the governor of Valença, who refused to open his gates to the northern column. He only caved in when he found that Lisbon had fallen and the Prince Regent had fled. The situation changed after the Spanish Dos de Mayo Uprising. Junot soon found that all communications with Paris were cut off by the Spanish revolt. On the 6th of June 1808, news of the rebellion reached Porto where General Domingo Belestá was stationed with 6,000 Spanish troops. After seizing General of Division François Jean Baptiste Quesnel and his 30-man escort, Belesta marched his troops away to join the armies fighting the French. Between 9 and the 12th of June, northwest Portugal erupted in revolt. The next action was the Battle of Évora on the 29th of July 1808. British intervention occurred in early August when Lieutenant General Sir Arthur Wellesley and 16,000 soldiers landed in Mondego Bay leading to the subsequent Battle of Roliça.