Imperial Russian Army
Peter the Great issued a decree in 1699 that created the basis for recruiting soldiers. This marked the beginning of a transition from older Streltsy forces to new Western-style regiments. The Streltsy had been professional hereditary musketeer corps originally raised by Ivan the Terrible. They were once effective but became highly unreliable and undisciplined over time. In times of war, the armed forces were augmented by peasants who lacked training.
The Tsardom of Russia formed military units known as regiments of the new order during the 17th century. These units followed Western European military standards rather than traditional Russian methods. In 1631, Russians created two regular regiments in Moscow. During the Smolensk War of 1632, 1634, six more regular regiments were formed alongside one dragoon regiment. Commanding officers comprised mostly foreigners at this stage.
By 1681, there were 33 regular regiments with 61,000 men and 25 dragoon and reiter regiments with 29,000 men. At the beginning of the 18th century, these regiments were used for creating a regular army. Peter the Great accelerated modernization through a decree in 1716 that established military regulations for organization. He also created the College of War in 1718 to handle army administration. The standing army existed before the end of the Great Northern War in 1721.
In 1805, the Russian Army had many characteristics of Ancien Régime organization. There was no permanent formation above the regimental level, and senior officers were largely recruited from aristocratic circles. The soldier was regularly beaten and punished to instill discipline. Both Russians and Austrians met a decisive military defeat at the hands of Napoleon during the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805.
The War of the Fourth Coalition began in August 1806 involving Prussia, Russia, Saxony, Sweden and the United Kingdom against France. Napoleon smashed the main Prussian armies at the Battle of Jena, Auerstedt on the 14th of October 1806. In late December, initial clashes between the French and Russians at Czarnowo, Golymin, and Pułtusk were without result. The French emperor put his troops into winter quarters east of the Vistula River.
Levin August von Bennigsen refused to remain passive and shifted his army north into East Prussia. He launched a stroke at the French strategic left wing. The two sides fought the Battle of Eylau on 7 and the 8th of February 1807 after this indecisive bloodbath. On the 14th of June, Bennigsen unwisely fought the Battle of Friedland with a river at his back and saw his army mauled with heavy losses. Following this defeat, Alexander was forced to sue for peace with Napoleon at Tilsit on the 7th of July 1807.
In 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia to compel Alexander I to remain in the Continental System. The Grande Armée, 650,000 men crossed the Neman on the 23rd of June 1812. Russia maintained a scorched earth policy of retreat until the Battle of Borodino on the 7th of September. Field Marshal Mikhail Kutuzov made the decision to preserve the army by retreating. By the 14th of September, the French captured Moscow. The Russian governor Prince Rastopchin ordered the city burnt to the ground. So the disastrous Great Retreat began, with 370,000 casualties largely as a result of starvation and freezing weather conditions.
Following Russia's defeat in the Crimean War during the reign of Emperor Alexander II, Count Dmitry Milyutin instituted a series of military reforms. These had their basis in the emancipation of the serfs in 1861. The modernization included reorganizing the Ministry of War for better centralized leadership. New technical and support organizations were created alongside changes to finances.
On the 1st of January 1874, the emperor approved a conscription statute that made military service compulsory for all 21-year-old males. The term was reduced for land army to six years plus nine years in reserve. This conscription created a large pool of experienced military reservists who would be ready to mobilize in case of war. It also permitted the Russian Empire to maintain a smaller standing army in peacetime.
The system of military education was reformed so elementary education became available to all draftees. Before these reforms, the Russian Army had no permanent barracks and was billeted in dugouts and shacks. The last part of Milyutin's reforms focused on military recruitment and occurred in 1874. Up to this point, the Russian Army had no permanent barracks and relied on temporary housing structures.
Among cultural and religious groups, Cossacks and Muslims served under unique sets of regulations within the Imperial structure. The Cossacks originated as Slavs that chose to live on the steppe instead of integrate with either the tsardom or Polish, Lithuanian Commonwealth. They were organized into several voisko named after regions across the empire. After their rebellious early history, from the 18th century on the government saw these cavalrymen as useful border guards.
In 1827 Emperor Nicholas I declared his heir, the tsarevich, the honorary ataman of all Cossacks. In 1832 the Cossack hosts were given ownership of their territories as Imperial lands in return for military service. During World War I, Cossacks made up two-thirds of Russian army cavalry, contributing over 500,000 men for the war effort. Out of these, 200,000 were Don Cossacks while the rest came from other hosts.
Muslim subjects of the Russian Empire were exempted from the military draft and recruited on a voluntary basis into certain units. As of 1913 there were about 400 Muslim officers including 30 generals. From 1914 to 1917 the Caucasian Native Cavalry Division grouped together mainly Muslim volunteers from the Caucasus region. Bashkirs and Kalmyks fought against Napoleon's forces with arrows, bows, and melee combat weapons wielded by Muslim Bashkirs.
At the outbreak of the war, Emperor Nicholas II appointed his cousin Grand Duke Nicholas as Commander-in-Chief. On mobilization, the Russian Army totalled 115 infantry and 38 cavalry divisions with nearly 7,900 guns. There were only 2 army ambulances and 679 cars available for transport. Divisions were allocated across multiple fronts: 32 infantry and 10.5 cavalry divisions operated against Germany, while 46 infantry and 18.5 cavalry divisions faced Austria-Hungary.
The war in the East began with Russian invasion of East Prussia and Austro-Hungarian province of Galicia. The first ended in a Russian defeat by the German Empire in the Battle of Tannenberg in 1914. In the west, a Russian Expeditionary Force was dispatched to France in 1915. The wartime mobilization increased troop strength to 4.5 million soldiers.
In total, 15 million men served from 1914 to 1917 during World War I. The peacetime standing army had been estimated at around 1,300,000 before the conflict. Officers increased from 40,000 to 80,000 during the war. An estimate in 1913 put total active and reserve troops at 5,962,396 including first and second line reservists never on active duty.
In March 1917 the Imperial Army swore loyalty to the Russian Provisional Government after abdication of Emperor Nicholas II. The official status of monarchy remained unresolved until September 1917 when the Russian Republic was declared. Even after February Revolution, despite ineffectiveness on offensive, majority of army remained intact with troops still at front lines.
The old army did not begin disintegrating until early 1918. During October Revolution, two Don Cossack regiments led by Alexander Kerensky and Pyotr Krasnov tried to stop Bolshevik takeover in Petrograd but were defeated. Amid Russian Revolution of 1917, Imperial Russian Army collapsed and dissolved completely.
Rebellious remnants evolved to become part of new Red Army. Before start of World War I intake of conscripts was around half a million annually. In 1911 total of 455,000 men called up for service included 10,000 navy personnel and 14,500 border guard members. Remaining 430,500 went to army. By end of century as conscripts entering no longer serfs they started having higher expectations for treatment.
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Common questions
When did Peter the Great create the Imperial Russian Army?
Peter the Great issued a decree in 1699 that created the basis for recruiting soldiers and marked the beginning of a transition from older Streltsy forces to new Western-style regiments. The standing army existed before the end of the Great Northern War in 1721.
What were the characteristics of the Imperial Russian Army in 1805?
In 1805, the Russian Army had many characteristics of Ancien Régime organization with no permanent formation above the regimental level and senior officers recruited from aristocratic circles. Both Russians and Austrians met a decisive military defeat at the hands of Napoleon during the Battle of Austerlitz on the 2nd of December 1805.
How did the Crimean War affect the Imperial Russian Army reforms?
Following Russia's defeat in the Crimean War during the reign of Emperor Alexander II, Count Dmitry Milyutin instituted a series of military reforms based in the emancipation of the serfs in 1861. These reforms included reorganizing the Ministry of War and creating new technical and support organizations alongside changes to finances.
When was compulsory military service introduced in the Russian Empire?
On the 1st of January 1874, the emperor approved a conscription statute that made military service compulsory for all 21-year-old males. The term was reduced for land army to six years plus nine years in reserve and created a large pool of experienced military reservists ready to mobilize in case of war.
What role did Cossacks play in World War I within the Imperial Russian Army?
During World War I, Cossacks made up two-thirds of Russian army cavalry contributing over 500,000 men for the war effort with 200,000 being Don Cossacks. They originated as Slavs that chose to live on the steppe instead of integrate with either the tsardom or Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth and were organized into several voisko named after regions across the empire.
How many men served in the Imperial Russian Army during World War I?
In total, 15 million men served from 1914 to 1917 during World War I while the peacetime standing army had been estimated at around 1,300,000 before the conflict. Officers increased from 40,000 to 80,000 during the war and an estimate in 1913 put total active and reserve troops at 5,962,396 including first and second line reservists never on active duty.