Human sexuality

• 1. Biological Foundations And Anatomy

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  In 1950, Ernst Gräfenberg first reported the existence of a sensitive area in the front wall of the vagina that could cause orgasms. This area, now known as the G-spot, remains a subject of debate among researchers regarding its structure and location. The human sexual response cycle was later formalized by William Masters and Virginia Johnson through direct observation of 312 men and 382 women. They recorded 10,000 episodes of sexual acts to create their four-phase EPOR model. During the excitement phase, heart rates increase and blood pressure rises for both sexes. The plateau phase extends to the brink of orgasm, which initiates the resolution stage. In the male orgasm phase, rhythmic contractions occur every 0.8 seconds during emission and expulsion. Female orgasms are centered in the clitoris, which contains as many nerve endings as the human penis. Oxytocin, sometimes called the love hormone, is released in both sexes when an orgasm is achieved. This hormone helps maintain close relationships and is also released when women give birth or breastfeed. The hypothalamus serves as the most important part of the brain for sexual functioning. It receives input from the limbic system and controls the pituitary gland. Four key hormones regulate this process: oxytocin, prolactin, follicle-stimulating hormone, and luteinizing hormone. Millions of sperm are produced daily in several hundred seminiferous tubules within the testicles. Women have a monthly reproductive cycle where about 400 ova mature out of 60,000 present at birth. The 14th day of the cycle is typically the most fertile period. Sperm production continues constantly unlike the female ovulation cycle. The prostate gland provides sexual stimulation and can lead to orgasm through anal sex. It lies under the bladder and in front of the rectum. The vaginal opening is surrounded by sphincter muscles that help grip the penis during arousal. Breasts develop during puberty in response to increased estrogen levels. Each adult breast consists of 15 to 20 milk-producing mammary glands.

• 2. Psychological Development And Identity

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  Sigmund Freud published his Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality in 1905, changing how children were viewed regarding sexuality. Before this publication, children were often regarded as asexual until later development. Freud proposed concepts like psychosexual development and the Oedipus complex which remain much debated today. He believed sexual drives exist from birth and are the most important motivating force in adult life. Alfred Kinsey collected data from questionnaires given to students at Indiana University before switching to personal interviews. His team sampled 5,300 men and 5,940 women to understand sexual behaviors. Evelyn Hooker revealed no correlation between homosexuality and psychological maladjustment through her research. Her findings played a pivotal role in shifting the scientific community away from treating homosexuality as something needing cure. By the early 21st century, homosexuality was no longer considered a pathology. The American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from their list of mental disorder diagnoses in 1973. Studies show considerable evidence supporting innate causes of sexual orientation over learned ones, especially for males. Cross-cultural evidence indicates cultures tolerant of homosexuality do not have significantly higher rates of it. Homosexual behavior is relatively common among boys in British single-sex boarding schools yet adult Britons who attended such schools are no more likely to engage in homosexual behavior than those who did not. The Sambia people ritually require their boys to engage in homosexual behavior during adolescence before they have any access to females. Most of these boys go on to lead heterosexual lives despite this ritual requirement. One hypothesis suggests homosexuals invest heavily enough in relatives to offset the cost of not reproducing directly. Several studies in Samoa have found some support for this kin selection hypothesis. Another hypothesis involves sexually antagonistic genes which cause homosexuality when expressed in males but increase reproduction when expressed in females.

• 3. Historical Evolution Of Sexual Norms

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  Before the rise of agriculture, hunter-gatherer groups had less restrictive sexual standards emphasizing pleasure and enjoyment. These societies maintained definite rules and constraints while recognizing tension between pleasure and procreation needs. Egyptian creation myths depict the sun god Atum masturbating in water to create the Nile River. Sumerian myth describes gods' semen filling the Tigris river. Once agricultural societies emerged, collective supervision of sexual behavior became common due to urbanization and population density. Children commonly witnessed parents having sex because many families shared sleeping quarters. Land ownership made determination of children's paternity important leading to patriarchal family life. During the 12th century, hostility toward homosexuality began spreading throughout religious and secular institutions. By the end of the 19th century, it was viewed as a pathology. The Industrial Revolution brought new artificial birth control devices like condoms and diaphragms. Doctors started claiming crucial roles in sexual matters urging advice on morality and health. New pornographic industries grew during this period. Japan adopted its first laws against homosexuality in the late 1800s. Puberty began occurring at younger ages creating focus on adolescence as time of confusion and danger. Havelock Ellis said homosexuality was inborn and therefore not immoral or disease. He believed many homosexuals made significant contributions to society. Freud wrote that all human beings were capable of becoming either heterosexual or homosexual with neither orientation assumed innate. Masters and Johnson opened the first sex therapy clinic in 1965 after observing thousands of sexual acts. Their book Human Sexual Inadequacy described therapeutic techniques in 1970.

• 4. Sociocultural Influences And Colonialism

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  In 1516, Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa discovered indigenous people in Central America where several men dressed like women had sex with each other. Balboa fed forty of these men to his dogs for having non-gender conforming behaviors and sexuality. European colonizers used claims of sexual immorality to justify discrimination against racial and ethnic minorities in North America and the United States. Laura Stoler investigated how Dutch colonists used sexual control and gender-specific sanctions to distinguish rulers from ruled in Indonesia. There are 155 native tribes recorded to have embraced two-spirit people within their communities though total numbers could be greater. Two-spirit people do not fall under Western gender categories but rather occupy a third gender category. They fill special niches in their communities often revered for possessing wisdom and spiritual powers. Historically European colonizers perceived relationships involving two-spirited people as homosexuality believing moral inferiority of native people. The Religious Crime Code of the 1880s explicitly aimed to aggressively attack Native sexual and marriage practices on reservations. Joane Nagel writes that adherence to or deviation from approved behaviors defines and reinforces racial regimes. In the United States people of color face effects of colonialism through stereotypes like Mammy and Jezebel for Black women. Asian women face lotus blossom and dragon lady stereotypes while Latina women encounter spicy Latina archetypes. These stereotypes contrast with standards of sexual conservatism creating dichotomies that dehumanize groups. Cathy Cohen describes how the welfare queen stereotype demonizes poor black single mothers for deviating from family conventions. Sexual meanings are constructed to maintain racial-ethnic-national boundaries by denigrating others and regulating behavior within groups.

• 5. Legal Frameworks And Reproductive Rights

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  In 1915, Emma Goldman and Margaret Sanger began spreading information regarding contraception opposing laws like the Comstock Law. Their main purpose was asserting birth control movement about empowering women with personal reproductive freedom. Contraceptives were quickly stigmatized as population control tactics disregarding ecological or economic conditions. This stigma targeted lower-class women who had most need of access to contraception. Birth control finally lost stigma in 1936 when U.S. v. One Package declared prescribing it to save life no longer illegal under Comstock Law. By 1938 there were 347 birth control clinics in the United States though advertising services remained illegal. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt publicly showed support for birth control through four terms her husband served from 1933 to 1945. The Federal Government began funding family planning in 1966 under President Lyndon B. Johnson's order. Today all Health Insurance Marketplace plans must cover all forms of contraception including sterilization procedures due to The Affordable Care Act signed by Barack Obama in 2010. In 1981 doctors diagnosed first reported cases of AIDS in America affecting gay and bisexual men especially black and Latino men. Ronald Reagan's press secretary Larry Speakes mocked AIDS calling it the gay plague according to audio recordings. Cardinal Krol voiced that AIDS was an act of vengeance against sin of homosexuality clarifying moral source mentioned by pope. Gay men from San Francisco and New York City created Denver Principles demanding rights agency and dignity of people living with AIDS. Congress denied federal funding from awareness campaigns promoting homosexual activities in 1987 instead relying on scare tactics. A 2003 survey of street-based sex workers in NYC found 80% had been threatened with or experienced violence. Twenty-seven percent said they had experienced violence from police officers themselves. New York has a law against loitering for purpose of engaging in prostitution nicknamed walking while trans law.

• 6. Religious Morality And Ethical Debates

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  Augustine declared spontaneous sexual desire proof of universal original sin by beginning of fifth century though this view went against most Christian predecessors. Paul framed desire as force Christians gained control over whereas non-Christians were enslaved by it. Roman Catholic Church teaches sexuality is noble and worthy with unitive and procreative end ideal occurring in marriage between man and woman open to possibility of life. Pope Francis warns not all discussions need settled by magisterium interventions but form consciences instead. Anglican Church views human sexuality as gift from loving God designed between man and woman in monogamous lifetime union. It states people with same sex attraction are loved by God welcomed as full members of Body of Christ. Some expressions considered sinful include promiscuity, prostitution, incest, pornography, pedophilia, adultery, violence against wives, and female circumcision. Orthodox Judaism considers homosexuality very sinful act punishable by death according to Book of Leviticus. Sex between man and woman within marriage sacred should be regularly enjoyed while celibacy considered sinful in Judaism. Early Christianity viewed desire including lust as immoral and sinful according to some authors. Elaine Pagels notes Augustine's declaration that spontaneous sexual desire proves penalty for universal original sin. Most religious liberals define sexuality labels in terms of attraction and self-identification rather than behavior. They may view same-sex activity morally neutral legally acceptable unrelated to mental illness genetically or environmentally caused.