Conservatism

• 1. Foundations And Philosophers

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  In the 1790s, Edmund Burke stood before a British Parliament and warned that the French Revolution would destroy civilization. He argued that society is not a contract between living people but a partnership across generations. Burke believed human nature was flawed and required traditional institutions like the church and aristocracy to function properly. Joseph de Maistre in France took this further by claiming rules had divine origins rather than arising from custom. These two thinkers established the core tenets of conservatism: tradition, hierarchy, and human imperfection. They rejected the idea that humans could create perfect societies through rational planning alone. Burke supported the American Revolution while opposing the violence of the French Revolution. He valued community and social harmony over radical reforms. De Maistre sought faith and authority, leading to an illiberal strain of thought distinct from Burke's more open approach. Their ideas flowed into anti-rationalist movements that prioritized established order over abstract theories.

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• 2. Authoritarian And Liberal Variants

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  Marshal Philippe Pétain led France under an authoritarian conservative regime during World War II. His government emphasized family life and national direction of the economy while maintaining heightened antisemitism. In Portugal, António de Oliveira Salazar ruled as dictator for forty years and denounced fascism as pagan Caesarism. He created a system that recognized legal, religious, and moral limits unlike other far-right movements. General Augusto Pinochet governed Chile from 1973 until 1990 with military rule. Conservative regimes often clashed with fascist movements despite sharing nationalism and common enemies like communism. Engelbert Dollfuss in Austria banned the Nazi Party and arrested activists before his assassination by Austrian Nazis in 1934. Liberal conservatives differ by incorporating minimal economic intervention while maintaining strong state authority for law and order. They believe individuals cannot be fully trusted to act responsibly without institutional guidance. This variant supports free markets but insists on social institutions nurturing duty and responsibility to the nation. The distinction lies between absolute authority demanded by authoritarians versus balanced governance sought by liberals.

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• 3. Global National Expressions

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  The Bharatiya Janata Party in India has over 170 million members as of October 2022. It promotes Hindu nationalism and conservative fiscal policies while attracting both privileged groups and plebeian communities seeking cultural pride. Japan's Liberal Democratic Party has dominated politics since 1955 under what experts call the 1955 System. Shinzo Abe served as prime minister from 2012 to 2020 and advocated revising Article 9 which renounces war. Singapore's People's Action Party has governed continuously since independence in 1965. Former Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew stated that if he did not interfere in private lives, they would not have made economic progress. He said they decide what is right regardless of public opinion. South Korea's People Power Party changed forms multiple times since democratization began. Yoon Suk Yeol won the presidential election in 2022 with the narrowest margin until his impeachment in 2025. These parties adapt conservatism to specific cultural contexts while maintaining national sovereignty and traditional values.

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• 4. European Political History

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  Prince Klemens von Metternich engineered the Conservative Order enacted at the Congress of Vienna after the Napoleonic Wars. His goal was establishing a European balance of power to suppress republican movements. The Austrian Empire became the third most populous monarchy in Europe after Russia and Britain. In France, Louis XVIII and Charles X restored conservative government during the Bourbon Restoration following Napoleon's first defeat. Marshal Philippe Pétain led an authoritarian regime from 1940 to 1944 emphasizing family life and national economy direction. Post-war Germany developed ordoliberalism centered on ordered liberty as a compromise between state and market. Helmut Kohl helped bring about German reunification along with closer European integration through the Maastricht Treaty. Angela Merkel served as Chancellor for many years attempting to save the Euro currency from demise. Her tenure saw conservatives divided over refugee crisis policies leading to the rise of Alternative for Germany. Austria's Federal State declared martial law after defeating socialist insurgents in the Civil War of 1934. The Patriotic Front merged paramilitary forces with the Christian Social Party becoming the only legal political party.

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• 5. Social And Religious Conservatism

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  A March for Life rally took place in Paris in 2012 demonstrating opposition to abortion and embryonic stem cell research. Social conservatives believe society is built upon fragile relationships requiring duty and traditional values to uphold them. They support a culture of life opposing destruction of human life at any stage including euthanasia. Traditional family values view the nuclear family model as society's foundational unit. Many oppose expansion of civil marriage to same-sex couples and child adoption by such couples. Public morality includes prohibition of drugs, prostitution, and censorship of pornography. In Ireland, Éamon de Valera enacted Catholic social policies writing into the Constitution that a woman's place was in the home. These policies prohibited importation or sale of contraceptives and enacted strict censorship laws. Christian democratic parties dominated post-war Europe including the Christian People's Party in Belgium and CDU in Germany. They were especially popular among European women who voted due to pro-family policies. Religious conservatism applies particular religion teachings to politics either by proclaiming their value or influencing laws directly.

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