Hakkō ichiu
Tanaka Chigaku coined the phrase Hakkō ichiu in the early 20th century. He drew from a statement attributed to Emperor Jimmu in the Nihon Shoki chronicle. The original text reads I shall cover the eight directions and make them my abode. Tanaka interpreted this as justification for imperialism despite its universalist roots. He cobbled the term from parts of the ancient statement. The characters mean eight crown cords which serve as a metaphor for eight directions. This metaphor referred to hanging decorations on a traditional Chinese-style crown. Koyama Iwao later proposed substituting words to stop the imperialist reinterpretation. His suggestion was rejected by military circles of the nationalist right.
Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe popularized the slogan in a speech on the 8th of January 1940. The second Konoe administration issued a white paper titled Hakkō ichiu that opened with those words. Konoe proclaimed that Japan's national policy aimed at establishing world peace in conformity with the nation's founding spirit. The government used the phrase to justify Japanese imperialism throughout the Second Sino-Japanese War. Economic impacts of the Shōwa financial crisis fueled a resurgence of nationalist movements. Naval limitations treaties of 1930 provoked reactionary militarist elements into desperate actions. These external factors provided a catalyst for internal political struggles within Japan. The evolution of the term served as a changing litmus test of factional relationships during the next decade.
Allied governments produced propaganda films citing Hakkō ichiu as evidence of global conquest intentions. Japanese officials claimed the official translation meant universal brotherhood. They emphasized phrases like Asia for the Asians to win support from conquered populations. Local populations initially welcomed Japanese troops when they invaded some regions. The Japanese indoctrinated soldiers into believing it was their duty to make Asians strong again through force. Economies of most occupied territories were remanaged only to produce raw war materials for Japan. The brutality and racism of the Japanese led conquered peoples to view them as equal to or worse than Western imperialists. Critics acknowledged that the expression meant Japanese people were equal to Caucasians but acted as leaders to Asian peoples.
The government unveiled the Hakkō ichiu monument in Miyazaki city in November 1940. Prince Chichibu had his calligraphy carved on its front side during the founding ceremony held the 3rd of April 1940. Stones used to build the structure came from regions under Japanese occupation including China and Korea. Preparations for celebrating the 2,600th anniversary of Jimmu's ascension propelled the general spread of the term. Stories recounted that Jimmu found five races in Japan and made them all brothers of one family. Emperor Shōwa presided over celebrations marking the mythical foundation of the empire in November 1940. Japanese pilots gathered under the flag of Hakkō ichiu during the Pacific War.
Japan declared war on the Allies in December 1941 which triggered Allied propaganda responses. The phrase meant bringing together corners of the world under one ruler according to traditional context. It was alleged ideal of the foundation of the empire meant no more than a universal principle of humanity. Measures of military aggression were advocated in names of Hakkō ichiu eventually becoming symbols for world domination through force. Loyalty to the Emperor served as the road leading to this moral goal. The way of the Emperor was a concept of virtue and maxim of conduct throughout years following. Allied judgment identified the slogan as evidence of global conquest rather than benevolence or brotherhood.
The monument was renamed Tower of Peace in 1958 after the end of the Pacific War. Writing characters meaning eight crown cords were removed from it after the Japanese defeat at insistence of U.S. military. The tower became the inception point for the torch relay of the 1964 Summer Olympics. Local tourism association successfully petitioned Miyazaki Prefecture to restore the original characters after the Olympics. This restoration triggered criticism of militarist connotations carried by the phrase. Some have highlighted the slogan as part of historical revisionism since the war ended. The writing remains on public monuments today despite ongoing debates about its meaning.
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Common questions
Who coined the phrase Hakkō ichiu in the early 20th century?
Tanaka Chigaku coined the phrase Hakkō ichiu in the early 20th century. He drew from a statement attributed to Emperor Jimmu in the Nihon Shoki chronicle.
When did Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe popularize the slogan Hakkō ichiu?
Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe popularized the slogan Hakkō ichiu in a speech on the 8th of January 1940. The second Konoe administration issued a white paper titled Hakkō ichiu that opened with those words.
Where was the Hakkō ichiu monument unveiled in November 1940?
The government unveiled the Hakkō ichiu monument in Miyazaki city in November 1940. Prince Chichibu had his calligraphy carved on its front side during the founding ceremony held the 3rd of April 1940.
Why did Allied governments produce propaganda films citing Hakkō ichiu as evidence of global conquest intentions?
Allied governments produced propaganda films citing Hakkō ichiu as evidence of global conquest intentions because they identified the slogan as evidence of world domination through force rather than benevolence or brotherhood. Measures of military aggression were advocated in names of Hakkō ichiu eventually becoming symbols for world domination through force.
What happened to the Hakkō ichiu monument after the end of the Pacific War?
The monument was renamed Tower of Peace in 1958 after the end of the Pacific War. Writing characters meaning eight crown cords were removed from it after the Japanese defeat at insistence of U.S. military.