Expansion of Russia (1500–1800)
In 1315, the political and cultural elite of the Golden Horde adopted Islam. This shift occurred as the Mongol Empire broke apart, leaving its western portion to form a new state with its capital on the lower Volga. By the mid-15th century, that same empire was in the process of breaking up. Through alliances and conquest, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania eventually gained control of vast expanses of the former Kievan Rus'. The steppe nomads lived on the steppe north of the Black and Caspian Seas and raided north into the forest-steppe. It was their constant raiding that kept the southern lands free of peasants. With the end of the Great Horde in 1502, they were organized as the independent Nogais north of the Caspian and those north of the Black Sea who were more or less subjects of the Crimean Khan. The removal of the Great Horde as a buffer state brought Russia and Crimea into direct confrontation. In 1480, the Great Horde failed in an attempt to invade Muscovy at the Ugra River, a date conventionally taken as the end of Tatar rule over Russia. The last Khan of the Great Horde was killed by the Crimeans in 1502.
By 1533, about 250 kilometers of the Oka bank was extensively fortified, mainly from Kaluga on the Oka bend to Kolomna. From 1550s, troops began mustering on the emerging Abatis Line. This line ran roughly 100 kilometers south of the Oka in two sections. The first section stretched from Peremyshl or Belyov along the Upa River to Odoyev, Krapivna, and the great fort of Tula. The second started southwest of Ryazan and ran through Skopin, founded in 1597, to Shatsk, established in 1552. After the Smolensk War ended in 1634, Moscow turned its attention south again. The number of frontier troops more than tripled to 17,500 men. In 1635-37, eleven new garrison towns were established. Tatar raids in 1644 revealed that fortification was lacking, so eighteen new forts were established by 1653. Frontier deployment moved south to the Belgorod line beginning in 1646. From 1650, command was based in Belgorod. To attract settlers, standards were relaxed, and many people were granted lands as odnodvortsy. The completed Belgorod Line was shaped like a reversed L. It ran south down the Voronezh River from Kozlov, founded in 1635, through Dobryi and Usman, established in 1645.
The Cossacks were the name given to the Slavs who lived on the frontier. They had formed two military polities by around 1500: the Ukrainian Zaparozhian Sich on the Dnieper bend and the Russian Don Cossacks on the Don River bend. Many of the Cossacks on the upper Don had recently fled settled lands and were still within the Russian government's reach. The majority of those on the lower Don had been on the steppe for generations, knew no other way of life, and were out of government reach. In 1556, Moscow, in alliance with Dmytro Vyshnevetsky of the Zaporozhian Cossacks, attempted several raids on the Black Sea coast. This policy was abandoned after the start of the Livonian war. From about 1610, the Orthodox and Zaporozhian Cossacks became more closely allied, thereby increasing the alienation of both from Poland. In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky started a rebellion which quickly became a general Orthodox rising against Poland. It also became something of a social revolution as landowners, Poles, Catholics, and Jews were driven west. Following the battle of Poltava, about 20,000 Cossack fled to Ottoman territory and established a Sich at Oleshky across the Dnieper from modern Kherson. By the agreement of Lubni in 1744, they returned to Russia and established the New Sich.
Kazan was conquered in 1552. Advanced forts were built at Vasilsursk on the Volga below Nizhny Novgorod in 1523 and Sviyazhsk near Kazan in 1551. In 1554, Moscow installed a Nogai prince on the throne of Astrakhan. When he rebelled, Russia annexed Astrakhan in 1556. This enormous expansion to the southeast presumably depended on river transport down the Volga. Between the Volga and Urals, Ufa was founded in 1574. From 1582, the Urals were crossed and the conquest of Siberia began. There was a slow and steady expansion east and north from Kazan into the Kama River lands toward the Urals. Intermediate forts were built on the Volga: Samara in 1586, Saratov in 1590, and Tsaritsyn in 1589. The independent Nogais on the lower Volga were happy to support whatever regional power suited their immediate interests. Moscow managed them with a mixture of bribes and threats. From the 1530s, some Nogais would ally with Russia, apparently finding more profit in trading than raiding. In 1555, Ismail sent 20,000 horses to Moscow. Around 1630, the Kalmyks migrated from Dzungaria and took over most of the Nogai lands on the lower Volga.
By about 1362, most of northwest Ukraine including Kiev had fallen to Lithuania. In 1385, the crowns of Poland and Lithuania were joined into the Polish-Lithuanian union. In 1569, during the Livonian War, a closer union was made and most of Ukraine was transferred from Lithuania to Poland. In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky started a rebellion which quickly became a general Orthodox rising against Poland. In 1654, Russia accepted Khmelnitsky as a vassal under the Treaty of Pereyaslav. Anticipating that the treaty would mean war with Poland, Russia struck first, taking Smolensk. By the Treaty of Andrusovo in 1667, Russia acquired Smolensk and Chernihiv and nominal rule over the lands east of the Dnieper, including Kiev. To the south of this, Zaporizhia was in theory a Russo-Polish condominium but in practice continued under Cossack self-government. By the Eternal Peace Treaty of 1686, Poland gave up its claim to Zaporizhia. After 1667, eastern Ukraine was divided into four areas. The Right Bank of the Dnieper gradually returned to Polish control. On the Left Bank was the Cossack Hetmanate under Russian suzerainty.
From 1694, Peter the Great planned two campaigns using river transport. In 1695, the main Dnieper fort at Kazy-Kermen was taken when a Russian mine accidentally set off its powder magazine. In 1696, he built ships at Voronezh, sailed them down the Don, and captured Azov. He built more ships at Taganrog which were bottled up in the Sea of Azov. After its defeat in the Russo-Turkish War from 1710 to 1711, Russia gave up Azov and its fleet. In 1736, the Russians stormed Perekop and captured Bakhchisarai but withdrew because of plague. In the same year, they took Azov. In 1737, they took Ochakov but gave it up because of the plague. By the Treaty of Nissa, Russia was allowed to have a port but no fort at Azov. Russia sent its Baltic fleet into the Mediterranean and defeated the Turkish fleet during the war ending with the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji. It gained control of the Kerch Strait leading from the Sea of Azov to the Black Sea. It gained Yedisan between the Dnieper and the Bug, including the new port of Kherson established in 1778. Crimea was to be independent of the Turks but in fact became a Russian vassal. Russia installed Şahin Giray as Khan. His overly firm rule provoked rebellion and he had to be propped up by Russian troops. Crimea was finally annexed in 1783.
Common questions
When did the Great Horde fail to invade Muscovy at the Ugra River?
The Great Horde failed in an attempt to invade Muscovy at the Ugra River in 1480. This date is conventionally taken as the end of Tatar rule over Russia.
What was the purpose and timeline of the Belgorod Line construction?
Frontier deployment moved south to the Belgorod line beginning in 1646 with command based there from 1650. The completed Belgorod Line ran south down the Voronezh River from Kozlov, founded in 1635, through Dobryi and Usman, established in 1645.
Which Cossack polities existed around 1500 and how were they organized?
By around 1500, Slavs on the frontier formed two military polities: the Ukrainian Zaparozhian Sich on the Dnieper bend and the Russian Don Cossacks on the Don River bend. Many Cossacks on the upper Don had recently fled settled lands while those on the lower Don lived on the steppe for generations.
When did Moscow annex Astrakhan and what forts were built during this expansion?
Russia annexed Astrakhan in 1556 after a Nogai prince installed by Moscow rebelled against them. Intermediate forts were built on the Volga including Samara in 1586, Saratov in 1590, and Tsaritsyn in 1589.
What territories did Russia acquire under the Treaty of Andrusovo in 1667?
By the Treaty of Andrusovo in 1667, Russia acquired Smolensk and Chernihiv and nominal rule over the lands east of the Dnieper including Kiev. To the south Zaporizhia continued under Cossack self-government until Poland gave up its claim to it by the Eternal Peace Treaty of 1686.
In which year was Crimea finally annexed by Russia and who was installed as Khan?
Crimea was finally annexed in 1783 after Russia installed Şahin Giray as Khan. His overly firm rule provoked rebellion and he had to be propped up by Russian troops before the final annexation.