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— CH. 1 · ORIGINS OF THE TERM —

Era of Stagnation

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  • Mikhail Gorbachev stood before the Communist Party in 1985 and labeled the previous decades as an Era of Stagnation. He used this phrase to describe the negative economic, political, and social policies that began under Leonid Brezhnev. This label replaced the official Soviet concept known as developed socialism. That earlier term had been declared at the 24th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1971. It stemmed from the failure of Nikita Khrushchev's promise to reach communism within 20 years. Gorbachev characterized the economy under Brezhnev's rule as the lowest stage of socialism. Scholars have subsequently disagreed on the dates, significance, and causes of this stagnation. Supporters of Gorbachev criticized Brezhnev himself for being too conservative. They argued he failed to change with the times.

  • Leonid Brezhnev replaced Nikita Khrushchev as Soviet leader in 1964. His era began with high economic growth and soaring prosperity. Social stagnation followed his rise to power when he revoked several of Khrushchev's reforms. He partially rehabilitated Stalinist policies like centralized control and suppression of dissent. Some commentators regard the start of social stagnation as the Sinyavsky-Daniel trial in 1966. Two writers were convicted of anti-Soviet agitation during that event. Others place it at the time of the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968. That invasion suppressed the Prague Spring movement. The period's political stagnation is associated with the establishment of gerontocracy. This system came into being as part of the policy of stability. The majority of scholars set the starting year for economic stagnation at 1975. Industrial growth rates declined during the 1970s as heavy industry was prioritized. Soviet consumer goods remained neglected throughout this long period.

  • Robert Service claims worker discipline decreased due to mounting economic problems. The government could not counter this effectively because of its full employment policy. Factories, mines, and offices became staffed by undisciplined personnel. Richard Sakwa takes a dimmer view by claiming growth rates fell inexorably from the 1950s until they stopped completely in the 1980s. He believes stability itself led to stagnation without strong leadership. Edwin Bacon and Mark Sandle argue the economy under Brezhnev was as dynamic as Khrushchev's era initially. Their dynamism stalled only when Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko took power. Philip Hanson notes that per capita consumption grew by 1.9% during the 1970s. That rate remains highly respectable despite overall slowdown. Robert Vincent Daniels states net growth exceeded 50% and reached two thirds in the urban sector. Coal production increased from 85 million metric tons in 1964 to 149 million metric tons in 1981. The Soviet Union became the largest exporter of petroleum in the world. By the end of the Tenth Five-Year Plan, the Soviet GNP reached about 60% of the American level.

  • The stagnation of the Soviet economy was fueled even further by its widening technological gap with the West. Centralized planning procedures made industries incapable of innovation needed to meet public demand. This failure was especially notable in the field of computers. Brezhnev's regime ordered an end to all independent computer development. It required all future models to be based on the IBM/360 system. Following this adoption, the Soviet Union never built enough platforms or improved the design. James W. Cortada documented how the Soviet computer industry failed to keep pace with Western standards. As technology fell behind, the state resorted to pirating Western designs. During the Nixon Shock and the 1973 oil crisis, hard currency earnings grew due to oil exports. Overall economic activity decreased markedly after the crisis in both the Soviet Union and the West. In the Soviet Union, however, the decline was much more pronounced. David Michael Kotz and Fred Weir argued that internal problems caused the stagnation rather than external factors. The Soviet Union became addicted to high oil prices during the 1970s.

  • Elizabeth Brainerd found that average height and weight of newborns increased from 1940 to 1969. Infant mortality rates also decreased during those years as a proxy for standard of living. After 1970, the increase in child height appeared to halt or possibly regress slightly. Birth weights similarly declined after 1970. There were not significant gains in average adult heights during this period. Starting in the 1970s there was a statistical increase in infant mortality rates. Life expectancy declined for men and stagnated for women. In 1965, female life expectancy nearly equaled that of U.S. women. Male life expectancy fell below that of U.S. men by only 2.5 years at that time. By 1980, there was a gap of nearly 8.5 years in life expectancy between Russian and U.S. men. A gap of 4.3 years existed for women in that same year. These anthropometric measures contradicted official narratives of social progress during the era.

  • Acts of protest took place in reaction to the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia. Protesters were dismissed from their jobs, beaten, or arrested. Eight protesters held a demonstration in Red Square in Moscow and were subsequently imprisoned. A group of Moscow lawyers specialized in defending people charged with anti-Soviet activity. Prominent nuclear physicist Andrei Sakharov became a well-known representative of the dissident movement. Soviet Army General Pyotr Grigorenko also stood as a prominent figure within this opposition. When details of the Brezhnev government's suppression efforts came to light via glasnost policies, many writers claimed unawareness. Sofia Kallistratova wrote an open letter to writer Chingiz Aitmatov on the 5th of May 1988. She stated they were not silent despite the widespread use of repression. Many members of the Soviet intelligentsia systematically criticized social and moral manifestations without overtly challenging authorities. Writers like Viktor Astafyev and Oles Honchar offered such criticism. Playwright Grigory Gorin and directors Eldar Ryazanov and Mark Zakharov also contributed to this cultural resistance.

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Common questions

What period does the Era of Stagnation cover in the Soviet Union?

The Era of Stagnation covers the years from 1964 to 1985. Mikhail Gorbachev labeled this specific timeframe as an era of stagnation when he addressed the Communist Party in 1985.

Who initiated the policy that led to social stagnation under Brezhnev?

Leonid Brezhnev replaced Nikita Khrushchev as Soviet leader in 1964 and initiated policies that caused social stagnation. He revoked several reforms and partially rehabilitated Stalinist policies like centralized control and suppression of dissent after taking power.

When did economic stagnation officially begin according to most scholars?

Most scholars set the starting year for economic stagnation at 1975. Industrial growth rates declined during the 1970s while heavy industry was prioritized over consumer goods.

How did the Soviet computer industry fail during the Era of Stagnation?

Brezhnev's regime ordered an end to all independent computer development and required future models to be based on the IBM/360 system. The Soviet Union never built enough platforms or improved the design, leading to a reliance on pirating Western designs.

What happened to life expectancy between Russian and U.S. citizens by 1980?

By 1980 there was a gap of nearly 8.5 years in life expectancy between Russian and U.S. men. A gap of 4.3 years existed for women in that same year despite earlier similarities in health metrics.

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All sources

35 references cited across the entry

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