Books of hours were not merely religious texts but the most intimate possessions of medieval people, often serving as the only book in a household and the primary tool for teaching children to read. These Christian prayer books, which were used to pray the canonical hours, became the most common type of surviving medieval illuminated manuscript, with tens of thousands still existing in libraries and private collections today. Unlike the heavy breviaries used by monks and nuns, books of hours were abbreviated versions designed specifically for lay people who wished to incorporate elements of monasticism into their secular lives. They contained a selection of prayers, psalms, hymns, and lessons based on the liturgy of the clergy, structured around the eight canonical hours of the day from Matins to Compline. The typical book included a calendar of church feasts, extracts from the Four Gospels, the Mass readings for major feasts, the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the fifteen Psalms of Degrees, the seven Penitential Psalms, a Litany of Saints, an Office for the Dead, and the Hours of the Cross. While most were written in Latin, many were produced in vernacular European languages, especially Dutch, making them accessible to a wider audience. The personal character of these books was often signaled by the inclusion of prayers specially composed or adapted for their owners, with as many as half of the surviving manuscripts containing annotations, marginalia, or additions of some sort. Owners could write in specific dates important to them, notes on the months where things happened that they wished to remember, and even the images found within these books would be personalized to the owners, such as localized saints and local festivities. These books were frequently passed down through the family, as recorded in wills, and sometimes given as wedding presents from a husband to his bride. Until about the 15th century, paper was rare and most books of hours consisted of parchment sheets made from animal skins, making them durable heirlooms that could survive centuries of handling and modification.
The Commercial Revolution Of Prayer
By at least the 15th century, the Netherlands and Paris workshops were producing books of hours for stock or distribution, rather than waiting for individual commissions, marking a shift from bespoke religious art to a commercial enterprise. The style and layout for traditional books of hours became increasingly standardized around the middle of the thirteenth century, a new style that can be seen in the books produced by the Oxford illuminator William de Brailes who ran a commercial workshop. His books included various aspects of the Church's breviary and other liturgical aspects for use by the laity, incorporating a perpetual calendar, Gospels, prayers to the Virgin Mary, the Stations of the Cross, prayers to the Holy Spirit, Penitential psalms, litanies, prayers for the dead, and suffrages to the Saints. The goal of these books was to help his devout patroness to structure her daily spiritual life in accordance with the eight canonical hours, Matins to Compline, observed by all devout members of the Church. The text, augmented by rubrication, gilding, miniatures, and beautiful illuminations, sought to inspire meditation on the mysteries of faith, the sacrifice made by Christ for man, and the horrors of hell, and to especially highlight devotion to the Virgin Mary whose popularity was at a zenith during the 13th century. This arrangement was maintained over the years as many aristocrats commissioned the production of their own books, but the commercialization of the craft allowed for a wider range of ownership. Although the most heavily illuminated books of hours were enormously expensive, a small book with little or no illumination was affordable much more widely, and increasingly so during the 15th century. The earliest surviving English example was apparently written for a laywoman living in or near Oxford in about 1240, and it was smaller than a modern paperback but heavily illuminated with major initials, but no full-page miniatures. By the 15th century, there are also examples of servants owning their own Books of Hours, and in a court case from 1500, a pauper woman is accused of stealing a domestic servant's prayerbook. These books were often the only book in a house, and were commonly used to teach children to read, sometimes having a page with the alphabet to assist this. Second-hand books of hours were often modified for new owners, even among royalty, with heraldry usually erased or over-painted by new owners, and some new owners also commissioned new craftsmen to include more illustrations or texts. Sir Thomas Lewkenor of Trotton hired an illustrator to add details to what is now known as the Lewkenor Hours, demonstrating how these books were living documents that evolved with their owners.
In the 14th century the book of hours overtook the psalter as the most common vehicle for lavish illumination, partly reflecting the increasing dominance of illumination both commissioned and executed by laymen rather than monastic clergy. From the late 14th century a number of bibliophile royal figures began to collect luxury illuminated manuscripts for their decorations, a fashion that spread across Europe from the Valois courts of France and the Burgundy, as well as Prague under Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor and later Wenceslaus. Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy was the most important collector of manuscripts, with several of his circle also collecting, and it was during this period that the Flemish cities overtook Paris as the leading force in illumination, a position they retained until the terminal decline of the illuminated manuscript in the early 16th century. The most famous collector of all, the French prince John, Duke of Berry (1340, 1416) owned several books of hours, some of which survive, including the most celebrated of all, the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. This was begun around 1410 by the Limbourg brothers, although left incomplete by them, and decoration continued over several decades by other artists and owners. The same was true of the Turin-Milan Hours, which also passed through Berry's ownership. By the mid-15th century, a much wider group of nobility and rich businesspeople were able to commission highly decorated, often small, books of hours. With the arrival of printing, the market contracted sharply, and by 1500 the finest quality books were once again being produced only for royal or very grand collectors. One of the last major illuminated book of hours was the Farnese Hours completed for the Roman Cardinal Alessandro Farnese in 1546 by Giulio Clovio, who was also the last major manuscript illuminator. These luxury books, like the Talbot Hours of John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, may include a portrait of the owner, and in this case his wife, kneeling in adoration of the Virgin and Child as a form of donor portrait. In expensive books, miniature cycles showed the Life of the Virgin or the Passion of Christ in eight scenes decorating the eight Hours of the Virgin, and the Labours of the Months and signs of the zodiac decorating the calendar. Secular scenes of calendar cycles include many of the best known images from books of hours, and played an important role in the early history of landscape painting. From the 14th century decorated borders round the edges of at least important pages were common in heavily illuminated books, including books of hours. At the beginning of the 15th century these were still usually based on foliage designs, and painted on a plain background, but by the second half of the century coloured or patterned backgrounds with images of all sorts of objects, were used in luxury books.
The Black Pages Of Devotion
A striking variation in the history of books of hours emerged in the late 15th century with the creation of Black Hours, codices copied on black pages that used gold and silver ink to create a shimmering effect against the dark background. The Black Hours of Galeazzo Maria Sforza (c.1466, 1477) in the Austrian National Library and the Black Hours (1460, 1475) in the Morgan Library are prime examples of this unique style. These books were not merely a change in color but a deliberate artistic choice that reflected the owner's wealth and the artist's technical mastery, as writing on black parchment required a different approach to illumination and text placement. The use of black pages was a way to make the book stand out as a luxury item, often reserved for the most powerful and wealthy patrons who could afford the time-consuming process of creating such a manuscript. The Black Hours of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, for instance, features intricate gold and silver illustrations that seem to glow from the darkness, creating a visual experience that was both mysterious and opulent. This style of book was part of a broader trend in the late 15th century where printers produced books of hours with woodcut illustrations, and the book of hours was one of the main works decorated in the related metalcut technique. The Black Hours were also part of a tradition of using books as status symbols, with the dark pages serving as a canvas for the most elaborate and expensive illuminations. The use of black pages was a way to make the book stand out as a luxury item, often reserved for the most powerful and wealthy patrons who could afford the time-consuming process of creating such a manuscript. The Black Hours of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, for instance, features intricate gold and silver illustrations that seem to glow from the darkness, creating a visual experience that was both mysterious and opulent. This style of book was part of a broader trend in the late 15th century where printers produced books of hours with woodcut illustrations, and the book of hours was one of the main works decorated in the related metalcut technique. The Black Hours were also part of a tradition of using books as status symbols, with the dark pages serving as a canvas for the most elaborate and expensive illuminations.
The Calendar Of The Months And The Zodiac
Secular scenes of calendar cycles include many of the best known images from books of hours, and played an important role in the early history of landscape painting, with the Labours of the Months and signs of the zodiac decorating the calendar pages. These illustrations combined picturesque scenes of country life with sacred images, creating a unique blend of the everyday and the divine that was central to the book of hours experience. The calendar pages often depicted the twelve months of the year, with each month showing a specific labor or activity associated with that time, such as harvesting in the autumn or planting in the spring. These scenes were not merely decorative but served to remind the owner of the passage of time and the importance of aligning one's daily life with the natural and liturgical cycles of the year. The zodiac signs were also included, linking the human experience to the cosmic order and the divine plan. The calendar pages were often the most colorful and detailed part of the book, with full-page miniatures that showed the owner's family, their coat of arms, and their personal devotions. The calendar pages were also used to record important dates and events, with owners writing in specific dates important to them, notes on the months where things happened that they wished to remember, and even the images found within these books would be personalized to the owners, such as localized saints and local festivities. The calendar pages were also used to teach children to read, sometimes having a page with the alphabet to assist this. The calendar pages were also used to record important dates and events, with owners writing in specific dates important to them, notes on the months where things happened that they wished to remember, and even the images found within these books would be personalized to the owners, such as localized saints and local festivities. The calendar pages were also used to teach children to read, sometimes having a page with the alphabet to assist this.
The Second Hand Life Of A Prayer Book
Second-hand books of hours were often modified for new owners, even among royalty, with heraldry usually erased or over-painted by new owners, and some new owners also commissioned new craftsmen to include more illustrations or texts. Sir Thomas Lewkenor of Trotton hired an illustrator to add details to what is now known as the Lewkenor Hours, demonstrating how these books were living documents that evolved with their owners. Flyleaves of some surviving books include notes of household accounting or records of births and deaths, in the manner of later family bibles. Some owners had also collected autographs of notable visitors to their house, turning the book into a social record as well as a devotional one. The books were often the only book in a house, and were commonly used to teach children to read, sometimes having a page with the alphabet to assist this. The books were also used to record important dates and events, with owners writing in specific dates important to them, notes on the months where things happened that they wished to remember, and even the images found within these books would be personalized to the owners, such as localized saints and local festivities. The books were also used to teach children to read, sometimes having a page with the alphabet to assist this. The books were also used to record important dates and events, with owners writing in specific dates important to them, notes on the months where things happened that they wished to remember, and even the images found within these books would be personalized to the owners, such as localized saints and local festivities. The books were also used to teach children to read, sometimes having a page with the alphabet to assist this.
The Printing Press And The End Of An Era
By the end of the 15th century, the advent of printing made books more affordable and much of the emerging middle-class could afford to buy a printed book of hours, and new manuscripts were only commissioned by the very wealthy. The Kitab salat al-sawai (1514), widely considered the first book in Arabic printed using moveable type, is a book of hours intended for Arabic-speaking Christians and presumably commissioned by Pope Julius II. With the arrival of printing, the market contracted sharply, and by 1500 the finest quality books were once again being produced only for royal or very grand collectors. One of the last major illuminated book of hours was the Farnese Hours completed for the Roman Cardinal Alessandro Farnese in 1546 by Giulio Clovio, who was also the last major manuscript illuminator. The printing press did not immediately replace the manuscript book of hours, but it did change the nature of the market, with printed books becoming more common and affordable for the middle class. The printed books of hours often included woodcut illustrations, and the book of hours was one of the main works decorated in the related metalcut technique. The printed books of hours were also used to record important dates and events, with owners writing in specific dates important to them, notes on the months where things happened that they wished to remember, and even the images found within these books would be personalized to the owners, such as localized saints and local festivities. The printed books of hours were also used to teach children to read, sometimes having a page with the alphabet to assist this. The printed books of hours were also used to record important dates and events, with owners writing in specific dates important to them, notes on the months where things happened that they wished to remember, and even the images found within these books would be personalized to the owners, such as localized saints and local festivities. The printed books of hours were also used to teach children to read, sometimes having a page with the alphabet to assist this.