Prayer
The English word prayer derives from the Latin adjective precaria, meaning something obtained by entreating or given as a favor. This term traveled through Old French prier before entering modern usage. The Vulgate Latin version translates the Greek word προσευχή, which appears in Biblical texts alongside synonyms like εύχή and δέησις. Ancient languages often used identical words for both supplication to humans and divine powers. Anthropologists trace the concept of prayer back five thousand years to written sources. A kneeling figure known as the Praying German dates to classical antiquity and shows raised hands expressing supplication. Bronze statues from Crete and Cyprus with similar postures suggest worship practices existed during the Late Bronze Age. These early forms combined magical thinking with animism to create a human cultural universal. Sir Edward Burnett Tylor and Sir James George Frazer argued that such communication with spirits emerged alongside behavioral modernity.
Ceremonial prayer became highly formulaic and ritualized across ancient polytheistic religions. Roman prayers operated on the principle do ut des, translating to I give so that you may give. Cato the Elder recorded traditional prayers in his treatise on agriculture where farmers sacrificed pigs to placate deities. Medieval Europe adopted kneeling or supine postures with clasped hands, likely borrowed from feudal homage gestures. Earlier traditions favored standing with outspread arms and bare heads. The 13th century Poetic Edda preserved an Old Norse prayer where the valkyrie Sigrdrífa prays to gods after being woken by Sigurd. Folk religion in medieval times produced syncretisms between pre-Christian and Christian traditions like the 11th-century Anglo-Saxon charm Aecerbot for crop fertility. The 8th-century Wessobrunn Prayer remains debated as either Christianized pagan prayer or independent tradition. Aboriginal Australians maintained connection to country through storytelling and rituals over sixty-five thousand years. Pueblo Indians used prayer sticks with feathers attached as supplicatory offerings while Hopi people added sacred meal bags to their sticks.
Direct petitions appeal to a deity to grant specific requests, forming what some call the social approach to prayer. Atheist arguments often target petitionary prayer for relieving individuals of taking active measures. Daniel Dennett suggested praying might have undesirable psychological effects. Educational approaches view prayer not as conversation but as training to inculcate certain attitudes within the one who prays. Rabbenu Bachya and Rabbi Yehuda Halevi promoted this perspective among Jewish thinkers. Maimonides took a rationalist approach helping train focus on divinity through philosophy and intellectual contemplation. This method became popular in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic intellectual circles though never dominated lay understanding. Experiential approaches enable persons to gain direct experience of the recipient of prayer. Eastern Orthodoxy calls this hesychasm while Sufi Islam practices similar methods widely. Friedrich Heiler listed six types of prayer including primitive ritual Greek cultural philosophical mystical and prophetic forms. Wayne Proudfoot traced religious experience roots to German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher who argued religion rests on feeling the infinite. Karl Barth famously rejected such religious empiricism during the interwar period. Robert Sharf criticized Western notions of experience introducing false duality between experiencer and experienced.
Observant Jews pray three times daily Shacharit Mincha and Ma'ariv with lengthier prayers on Sabbaths and holidays. The siddur serves as the worldwide prayerbook containing set orders of daily prayers. Orthodox Judaism requires ten adult males forming a minyan for several communal prayers. Christians follow varied traditions from spontaneous utterances to texts like the Anglican Book of Common Prayer. Jesus taught disciples the Lord's Prayer recorded in gospel accounts Matthew 6:9-13. Hippolytus instructed second-century Christians to pray at seven fixed times including rising bedtime and midnight. Muslims perform salah facing the Kaaba in Mecca three or five times daily according to prescribed hours. The adhan calls followers together while the muezzin leads standing recitation bowing prostration and praise ending with Peace be with you and God's mercy. Bahá'u'lláh composed obligatory prayers requiring believers to face the Qiblih direction. Mandaeans practice brakha daily consisting of set prayers recited three times per day facing north without prostration. Christian Science teaches prayer spiritualizes thought bringing clearer view of divine reality rather than changing creation itself. Pentecostal congregations often accompany prayer with glossolalia speaking unknown tongues believed by some to be gifts of Holy Spirit.
Hinduism incorporates diverse prayer forms ranging fire-based rituals to philosophical musings called prarthana. Chanting involves dictum recitation of timeless verses while dhyanam entails deep meditation on preferred deities. Hindus typically join palms in pranam when praying to devatas trinity incarnations or formless meditation. Buddhism treats prayer as ancillary role largely ritual expression wishing success in practice helping all beings. Theravada tradition emphasizes transfer of merit as evocation and prayer known as pariñāmanā. Pure Land Buddhism focuses recitation of Nembutsu mantras ensuring rebirth into Sambhogakāya lands after bodily dissolution. Tibetan Buddhism posits existence of various deities yet peak views hold they no more existent than practitioner mindstream continuity. Sikh Ardās prayer stands before undertaking tasks or completing services like Paath scripture reading programs. Guru Gobind Singh strictly set beginning of Ardas while devotees conclude using words asking Waheguru blessing for future tasks. Zoroastrians believe elements pure fire represents God's light wisdom developing temple worship practices over millennia. Wiccan prayers include meditation rituals incantations communicating with God and Goddess for esbat sabbat celebrations healing dead safety. Eckankar practitioners sing word HU aloud silently eyes closed open experiencing divine ECK Holy Spirit.
Francis Galton conducted famous statistical experiment in 1872 comparing British Royal family longevity against general population finding no difference. Meta-studies performed showing evidence only for no effect potentially small effect exist regarding prayer healing sick injured people. A 2006 meta analysis on fourteen studies concluded no discernable effect exists while 2007 systemic review reported inconclusive results noting seven of seventeen studies had small significant effect sizes. Most methodologically rigorous studies failed produce significant findings overall. One double-blind study published 1988 suggested intercessory prayer born again Christians had statistically significant positive effect coronary care unit population though critics claimed severe methodological problems existed. Harris et al reported another study where patients actually longer hospital stay prayer group if discounting those leaving before prayers began. Largest randomized blind clinical trial remote retroactive intercessory prayer study conducted Israel used 3393 patient records from 1990 to 1996 assigning some blindly intercessory prayer group resulting shorter stays fever duration. Mayo Clinic found 2001 double-blind study showed no significant difference recovery rates between groups assigned prayed or not prayed. MANTRA study Duke University found differences outcome cardiac procedures result prayer absent. American Heart Journal publication 2006 Christian intercessory prayer reading scripted prayer found no effect recovery heart surgery patients.
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Common questions
What is the origin of the English word prayer?
The English word prayer derives from the Latin adjective precaria, meaning something obtained by entreating or given as a favor. This term traveled through Old French prier before entering modern usage.
When did anthropologists trace the concept of prayer back to written sources?
Anthropologists trace the concept of prayer back five thousand years to written sources. Ancient languages often used identical words for both supplication to humans and divine powers.
How many times daily do observant Jews pray according to the script text?
Observant Jews pray three times daily Shacharit Mincha and Ma'ariv with lengthier prayers on Sabbaths and holidays. The siddur serves as the worldwide prayerbook containing set orders of daily prayers.
What were the results of the 2006 meta analysis on fourteen studies regarding prayer healing?
A 2006 meta analysis on fourteen studies concluded no discernable effect exists while 2007 systemic review reported inconclusive results noting seven of seventeen studies had small significant effect sizes. Most methodologically rigorous studies failed produce significant findings overall.
Who conducted the famous statistical experiment in 1872 comparing British Royal family longevity against general population?
Francis Galton conducted famous statistical experiment in 1872 comparing British Royal family longevity against general population finding no difference. Meta-studies performed showing evidence only for no effect potentially small effect exist regarding prayer healing sick injured people.