Australia (continent)

• 1. Geological Origins And Plate Tectonics

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  The Australian continent sits in the middle of a tectonic plate, making it unique among all landmasses on Earth. It has no active volcanism today because geological forces like plate clashes occurred mainly during its early history as part of Gondwana. About 96 million years ago, the plate began drifting north from Antarctica while still connected to that southern supercontinent. For most of this time since then, Australia and New Guinea remained a continuous landmass known as Sahul. During the Last Glacial Maximum about 18,000 BC, sea levels were lower and dry land connected mainland Australia with Tasmania and New Guinea. Rising seas between 18,000 and 10,000 years ago overflowed lowlands and separated these areas into today's distinct islands. The continental shelf connecting them covers some area, half of which is less than deep. This stable geological history means Australia is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on Earth.

• 2. Indigenous Peoples And Ancient History

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  Archaeological evidence shows Indigenous Australians arrived at least 50,000 years ago after migrating from Africa to Asia around 70,000 years ago. More recent research suggests possible arrival dates as early as 65,000 years ago. The earliest known human remains were found at Lake Mungo in southwest New South Wales, suggesting one of the world's oldest known cremations occurred there. These findings indicate early religious ritual among humans thousands of years before other recorded practices. Dreamtime remains a prominent feature of Australian Aboriginal art, representing the oldest continuing tradition of art in the world. Papuan habitation began between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago in New Guinea. Trade between New Guinea and neighboring Indonesian islands was documented as early as the seventh century. Recent archaeological research suggests people may have occupied sites in highland areas up to certain altitudes 50,000 years ago rather than being restricted to warmer coastal regions. Aboriginal pictographs known as Wandjina appear in the Wunnumurra Gorge along the Barnett River in Western Australia.

• 3. European Exploration And Colonial Expansion

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  Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon made the first documented European sight and landing on the continent in Cape York Peninsula in 1606. Dutch explorer Abel Janszoon Tasman circumnavigated parts of the coast and discovered Van Diemen's Land now Tasmania, New Zealand in 1642, and Fiji islands. British explorer James Cook made his first recorded direct observation of indigenous Australians at Brush Island near Bawley Point on the 23rd of April 1770. On the 29th of April that same year, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland at what is now called the Kurnell Peninsula. There he fired upon an Aboriginal tribe known as the Gweagal, injuring one person. Captain Arthur Phillip led the First Fleet of 11 ships carrying about 850 convicts into Sydney on the 26th of January 1788. Phillip described Sydney Cove as without exception the finest harbor in the world. In 1883, the Colony of Queensland tried to annex southern half of eastern New Guinea but the British government did not approve. The Commonwealth of Australia came into being when Federal Constitution was proclaimed by Governor-General Lord Hopetoun on the 1st of January 1901.

• 4. Modern Political Structures And Sovereignty

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  Australia operates as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy with Charles III serving as King of Australia. His role differs from his position as monarch of other Commonwealth realms. The King is represented in Australia by the Governor-General at federal level and Governors at state level who act on advice of government ministers. Two major political groups usually form government: the Australian Labor Party considered center-left and the Coalition which combines Liberal Party and National Party considered center-right. Papua New Guinea became self-governing on the 1st of December 1973 after elections in 1972 resulted in formation of ministry headed by Chief Minister Michael Somare. Independence was achieved on the 16th of September 1975 when the country joined United Nations on the 10th of October that same year. Papua New Guinea remains a Commonwealth realm with King Charles III as sovereign head of state. Bob Dadae currently serves as Governor-General representing the monarch there. Unlike most Commonwealth realms, governors-general are elected by legislature rather than chosen by executive branch. In 2001 Special Autonomy status was granted to Papua province though implementation has been partial and often criticized. The region split into provinces of Papua and West Papua in 2003.

• 5. Unique Fauna And Flora Evolution

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  For about 40 million years Australia-New Guinea remained almost completely isolated allowing unique species to develop unimpeded. Some 83% of mammals, 89% of reptiles, 24% of fish and insects, and 93% of amphibians inhabiting the continent are endemic to Australia. Marsupials and monotremes out-competed placental mammals only within Australia-New Guinea coming to dominate there. New Guinea contains 284 mammal species including three orders of marsupials plus rodents and bats. About 195 of these mammal species representing 69% are endemic. Bird life flourished particularly songbirds thought to have evolved 50 million years ago in part of Gondwana that later became Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, and Antarctica. Over 300 bird species exist in West Papua with at least 20 unique to ecoregion. Prominent Australian animals include koala, emu, platypus, kangaroo, and Tasmanian devil. Natural history illustrator John Gould popularized the koala through his 1863 work The Mammals of Australia. Flora adaptations to aridity include scleromorphy and serotiny common in families like Proteaceae, Myrtaceae, Fabaceae, and Casuarinaceae.

• 6. Economic Disparities And Resource Management

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  Australia stands as the only First World country on the Australia-New Guinea continent though its economy is by far largest and most dominant regionally. Australia's per-capita GDP exceeds that of United Kingdom, Canada, Germany, and France in terms of purchasing power parity. In financial year 2014/15 tourism represented 3.0% of Australia's GDP contributing A$47.5 billion to national economy. There were 7.4 million visitor arrivals in 2015. Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranked Sydney tenth globally making it one of world's most livable cities. Melbourne also ranked highly in world's most liveable city list while designated City of Literature by UNESCO in Creative Cities Network. Papua New Guinea differs significantly being classified as developing economy by International Monetary Fund. Rich natural resources account for two-thirds of PNG export earnings yet lack of development led foreign countries to take over few sites. United States constructed oil company beginning exports in 2004 representing largest project in PNG history. Strong growth in mining and resource sector made PNG sixth fastest-growing economy worldwide in 2011 despite overall challenges.