Amduat
The Amduat emerged during the New Kingdom of Egypt, a period spanning from approximately 1550 to 1070 BCE. This funerary text carved into tomb walls differed sharply from earlier traditions like the Old Kingdom's Pyramid Texts or the First Intermediate Period's Coffin Texts. It appeared first in fragments within the tombs of Hatshepsut and Thutmose I at location KV20. Additional early examples exist in the burial sites of Thutmose I (KV38) and Thutmose II (Wadi C-4). The earliest complete version resides in KV34, the tomb of Thutmose III located in the Valley of the Kings. Unlike other texts, it remained reserved almost exclusively for pharaohs until the Twenty-first Dynasty. Very select nobility gained access only much later.
Ra descends into the underworld as the sun sets in the western horizon known as akhet. He travels through twelve distinct hours of darkness before rising again in the east. During this journey, Ra transforms into a ram-headed figure separated from his physical body. His Ba seeks reunion with Osiris who now holds the form of the dead god. A serpent named Mehen protects him while he regenerates. Isis casts magic spells upon the solar barque to allow travel without water. Apep attempts to swallow all waters of Nun to stop the daily cycle. Horus calls upon a monstrous serpent with unquenchable fire to destroy enemies of Osiris. The journey ends when the sun god takes on the form of Khepri as morning crests over the horizon.
Hour one begins at the transition between day and night where Ra enters from the western horizon. Hour two features primeval waters called Wernes representing fertility and agriculture. Hour three transforms these waters into the Waters of Osiris marked by the god's visual representation. In hour four Ra reaches Imhet, the barren desert land of Sokar where he cannot see. The solar barque turns into a double-headed fire-breathing serpent to traverse pitch-black sand. Hour five shows the land of Sokar continuing alongside the serpent-barque. This region contains the Cavern of Sokar surrounded by a lake of fire. Hour six marks regeneration when the body of the sungod reunites with his Ba in the form of Osiris. A sun-disc crown appears on Ra's head renewing light. Hour seven involves danger as Apep swallows waters attempting to kill Osiris through Ra. Isis places a magic spell allowing continued travel without water. Hour eight sees Ra fully regenerated facing five doors he must command open with his voice. Eight unnamed gods pull the solar barque toward the surface. Hour nine features twelve oarsmen pulling the boat while idols help disperse bread and beer to the dead. Hour ten protects against enemies like Apep using weapons carried by twelve oarsmen. Horus pulls drowned souls to shore offering hope for lost spirits. Hour eleven heals the eyes of Ra symbolizing health and rejuvenation. A giant World-Encircler serpent joins the parade. Hour twelve concludes the journey as the sun god is reborn once again.
Thutmose III ruled halfway through the Eighteenth Dynasty during the New Kingdom. His tomb at KV34 follows what Egyptologist Josh Roberson calls a curved and bent axe style. The burial chamber connects to four storage rooms, an antechamber, a well shaft, and three corridors leading out to the entrance. Historians Catherine Roehrig and Barbara Richter suggest this architecture mirrors the structure of the underworld described in the text. The tomb slopes downwards and winds around to reflect the confusing labyrinthian nature of the Duat. It begins on the west side of the room and ends on the east side mirroring the cycle of the sun. Hours appear out of order with five and six placed between one and twelve creating an irregular circle. Rounded corners form an oval shape possibly representing the circular life cycle of the sun's journey. Connections exist to the oval cavern of Sokar found in hour six. The sarcophagus sits in the center of the burial chamber also shaped like an oval cartouche containing the pharaoh's name. Useramun served as vizier to Thutmose III and was a rare non-royal example with an Amduat-style tomb. His burial site contained only images of hours three and four.
The Amduat divides visually into three continuous horizontal registers separated by vertical textual columns. Each vertical register contains information about the title of the hour and the name of the gateway guarded by a deity. The middle horizontal register traditionally starts with Ra on his solar barque entering a new realm or hour. Top and bottom registers contain creatures typical of the Egyptian underworld plus additional pictorial details regarding specific hours. Hieroglyphs for Ba resemble those for a ram suggesting a visual pun used throughout the text. Maat appears frequently alongside her signature feather representing truth, order, and control. In hour two Maat is depicted only as a curved feather on one of the boats. Hour five shows Osiris's burial mound on the top register while Khepri crawls out representing eventual rebirth. A bright red sun-disk protected by a serpent appears on the prow of the boat in hour eleven showing the journey nearing its end. The text includes instructions at the end detailing how it should be presented within a tomb. These physical representations guide the deceased to the afterlife alongside Ra.
Amduat tombs became popular following the construction of Thutmose III's tomb in the Valley of the Kings. Later Eighteenth Dynasty tombs strayed from this approach to follow a more linear design style arranged by single long corridors. Straightening out the previously bent axe shape marked a shift in architectural tradition. The Amduat still appeared in these tombs but was not reserved solely for burial chambers anymore. It expanded into various parts of the tomb structure during this period. With the rise of the Ramesside Period in the Twentieth Dynasty the text began appearing alongside other funerary texts like The Book of Gates and The Book of Caverns. At the end of the New Kingdom the Amduat lost its exclusivity completely. It appeared on both coffins and papyri for deceased people of lower classes than royalty or nobility. This broadened access contrasted sharply with earlier restrictions limiting use almost exclusively to pharaohs until the Twenty-first Dynasty.
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Common questions
When did the Amduat emerge during ancient Egyptian history?
The Amduat emerged during the New Kingdom of Egypt, a period spanning from approximately 1550 to 1070 BCE. It appeared first in fragments within the tombs of Hatshepsut and Thutmose I at location KV20.
What journey does Ra take through the twelve hours of darkness in the Amduat?
Ra descends into the underworld as the sun sets in the western horizon known as akhet and travels through twelve distinct hours before rising again in the east. He transforms into a ram-headed figure separated from his physical body while seeking reunion with Osiris who now holds the form of the dead god.
Which pharaoh's tomb contains the earliest complete version of the Amduat text?
The earliest complete version resides in KV34, the tomb of Thutmose III located in the Valley of the Kings. Thutmose III ruled halfway through the Eighteenth Dynasty during the New Kingdom.
How is the visual layout of the Amduat organized within tomb walls?
The Amduat divides visually into three continuous horizontal registers separated by vertical textual columns. Each vertical register contains information about the title of the hour and the name of the gateway guarded by a deity.
When did common people gain access to the Amduat funerary text?
At the end of the New Kingdom the Amduat lost its exclusivity completely and appeared on both coffins and papyri for deceased people of lower classes than royalty or nobility. It remained reserved almost exclusively for pharaohs until the Twenty-first Dynasty.