1953 Iranian coup d'état

The Mosaddegh Ascension

In 1949, an assassin attempted to kill the Shah. Shocked by the experience and emboldened by public sympathy for his injury, the Shah began to take an increasingly active role in politics. He quickly organized the Iran Constituent Assembly to amend the constitution to increase his powers. He established the Senate of Iran which had been part of the Constitution of 1906 but had never convened. The Shah had the right to appoint half the senators and he chose men sympathetic to his aims. Mosaddegh thought this increase in the Shah's political power was not democratic. He believed that the Shah should reign but not rule in a manner similar to Europe's constitutional monarchies. Led by Mosaddegh, political parties and opponents of the Shah's policies banded together to form a coalition known as the National Front. Oil nationalization was a major policy goal for the coalition. By 1951, the National Front had won majority seats for the popularly elected Majlis or Parliament of Iran. According to Iran's constitution, the majority elected party in parliament would choose its prime minister candidate by vote after which the Shah would confirm the candidate to power. The Prime Minister Haj Ali Razmara who opposed oil nationalization was assassinated by the hardline Fadaiyan e-Islam whose spiritual leader was Ayatollah Abol-Qassem Kashani. After the National Front dominated voting in Parliament, Mosaddegh was confirmed prime minister of Iran by the Shah replacing Hossein Ala who had replaced Razmara. Under heavy pressure by the National Front, the assassin of Razmara Khalil Tahmasebi was released and pardoned. For the time being, Mosaddegh and Kashani were allies of convenience. Mosaddegh saw that Kashani could mobilize religious masses while Kashani wanted Mosaddegh to drive out British and other foreign influence. Kashani's Fadaiyan mobs often violently attacked opponents of nationalization and opponents of the National Front government acting at times as unofficial enforcers for the movement. However, by late 1952 Mosaddegh was becoming increasingly opposed to Kashani as the latter contributed to mass political instability in Iran. Kashani berated Mosaddegh for not Islamizing Iran as he was a firm believer in separation of religion and state. The Shah and his new prime minister Mosaddegh had an antagonistic relationship. Part of the problem stemmed from the fact that Mosaddegh was connected by blood to the former royal Qajar dynasty and saw the Pahlavi king as a usurper to the throne. But the real issue stemmed from the fact that Mosaddegh represented a pro-democratic force that wanted to temper the Shah's rule in Iranian politics. He wanted the Shah to be a ceremonial monarch rather than a ruling monarch thus giving elected government power instead of the un-elected Shah. While the constitution gave the Shah power to rule directly, Mosaddegh used the united National Front bloc and widespread popular support for oil nationalization vote to block the Shah's ability to act. As a result, the oil nationalization issue became increasingly intertwined with Mosaddegh's pro-democracy movement. In 1952 the Shah dismissed Mosaddegh replacing him with Ahmad Qavam a veteran prime minister. Widespread protests by Mosaddegh supporters resulted in the Shah immediately reinstating him.

Operation Ajax Planning

In early 1953, UK Prime Minister Winston Churchill and the Eisenhower administration decided to overthrow Iran's government. They judged Mosaddegh to be unamenable and feared growing influence of the communist Tudeh Party. British intelligence officials' conclusions and the UK government's solicitations to the US were instrumental in initiating and planning the coup. The preceding Truman administration had opposed a coup fearing the precedent Central Intelligence Agency involvement would set. The U.S. government had been considering unilateral action without UK support to assist the Mosaddegh government as late as 1952. On the 15th of August, Colonel Nematollah Nassiri commander of the Imperial Guard delivered to Mosaddegh a firman from the Shah dismissing him. Mosaddegh who had been warned of the plot probably by the Communist Tudeh Party rejected the firman and had Nassiri arrested. Mosaddegh argued at his trial after the coup that under Iranian constitutional monarchy the Shah had no constitutional right to issue an order for elected Prime Minister dismissal without Parliament consent. However, the constitution at time did allow for such action which Mosaddegh considered unfair. Following failed coup attempt, the Shah accompanied by his second wife Soraya Esfandiary-Bakhtiari and Aboul Fath Atabay fled to Baghdad. Arriving unannounced, the Shah asked permission for himself and consort to stay in Baghdad for few days before continuing on to Europe. After high-level Government consultations they were escorted to White House Iraqi Government guest house before flying to Italy in plane flown by Mohammad Amir Khatami. After first coup attempt failed General Zahedi declaring he was rightful prime minister shuttled between multiple safe houses attempting to avoid arrest. Mosaddegh ordered security forces to capture coup plotters and dozens were imprisoned. Believing he succeeded and that he was in full control government Mosaddegh erred. Assuming coup had failed he asked supporters return to homes and continue with lives as normal. The Tudeh party members also returned to homes no longer carrying out enforcement duties. The CIA was ordered to leave Iran although Kermit Roosevelt Jr. was slow to receive message allegedly due to MI6 interference and eagerly continued foment anti-Mosaddegh unrest. Eisenhower administration considered changing policy to support Mosaddegh with undersecretary of state Walter Bedell Smith remarking on the 17th of August: Whatever his faults, Mosaddegh had no love for Russians and timely aid might enable him to keep Communism in check.

Execution And Street Violence

On the 19th of August, Mosaddegh issued decree banning all demonstrations on that day. However mobilization of crowds and street protests widely believed to have been organized with CIA assistance occurred to create impression of popular unrest and opposition to Mosaddegh government. Bloody street battles observed to have broken out in Tehran between Tudeh Party activists and right wing parties whose offices attacked by communists. At same time pro-Shah crowds began gathering in streets. By middle of day large crowds of regular citizens armed with improvised weapons took to streets in mass demonstrations and beat back Tudeh Party members. Under Zahedi authority army left barracks drove off communist Tudeh then stormed all government buildings with support of demonstrators. Mosaddegh fled after tank fired single shell into house but later turned himself in to army custody. To prevent further bloodshed he refused last attempt to organize supporters. By end of day Zahedi and army were in control government. According to Hugh Wilford in book published 2013 despite CIA role creating conditions for coup there was little evidence prove Kermit Roosevelt Jr or other CIA officials directly responsible actions demonstrators or army on the 19th of August. It even suggested Roosevelt activities between 15 and the 19th of August primarily intended organize stay-behind networks as part planned CIA evacuation country although allowed him later claim responsibility day outcome. In 2014 historian Ray Takeyh stated US-led coup attempt unsuccessful citing how CIA wrote Eisenhower: The move failed We now probably have to snuggle up to Mosaddeq if we're going save our influence Iran; demonstrations leading to Mosaddeq resignation took place some weeks after Roosevelt-organized ones composed average citizens not thugs-for-hire that CIA and MI6 recruited. However, in 2017 CIA released documents revealing networks established by British intelligence services used run campaign propaganda paid-for protests resulting rapid destabilization nation. Scholars Roham Alvandi and Mark J. Gasiorowski wrote 2019 Ray Takeyh view based deeply flawed highly selective reading available evidence. Shah stayed hotel Italy until learned what transpired upon which chokingly declared I knew they loved me. Allen Dulles director CIA flew back with Shah from Rome to Tehran. Zahedi officially replaced Mosaddegh. Mosaddegh arrested tried originally sentenced death. But on Shah personal orders sentence commuted three years solitary confinement military prison followed house arrest until death.

Cold War Motivations

Historians disagree what motivated United States change policy towards Iran stage coup. Middle East historian Ervand Abrahamian identified coup d'état classic case nationalism clashing imperialism Third World. He states Secretary of State Dean Acheson admitted Communist threat smokescreen responding President Eisenhower claim Tudeh Party about assume power: Throughout crisis communist danger more rhetorical device than real issue i.e. part cold-war discourse ... The Tudeh no match armed tribes 129,000-man military. What is more, British Americans had enough inside information confident party plans initiate armed insurrection. At beginning crisis when Truman administration under impression compromise possible, Acheson stressed communist danger warned if Mosaddegh not helped Tudeh would take over. British Foreign Office retorted Tudeh no real threat. But August 1953 when Foreign Office echoed Eisenhower administration claim Tudeh about take over, Acheson now retorted there no such communist danger. Acheson honest admit issue Tudeh smokescreen. Abrahamian states Iran oil central focus coup both British Americans though much discourse time linked Cold War. Abrahamian wrote If Mosaddegh succeeded nationalizing British oil industry Iran that set example seen time by Americans threat U.S. oil interests world because other countries do same. Mosaddegh wanted any compromise solution allow degree foreign control. Abrahamian said Mosaddegh wanted real nationalization theory practice. Political theorist John Tirman points out agricultural land owners politically dominant Iran well into 1960s monarch Reza Shah aggressive land expropriation policies benefit himself supporters resulted Iranian government largest land owner. Landlords oil producers new backing moreover American interests first time exerted Iran. Cold War starting Soviet challenges seen every leftist movement. Reformers root nationalists communists issue galvanized above all others control oil. Belief oil central motivator behind coup echoed popular media authors Robert Byrd Alan Greenspan Ted Koppel. Middle East political scientist Mark Gasiorowski states while face considerable merit argument U.S. policymakers helped U.S. oil companies gain share Iranian oil production after coup seems more plausible argue U.S. policymakers motivated mainly fears communist takeover Iran involvement U.S. companies sought prevent occurring. Cold War height early 1950s Soviet Union viewed expansionist power seeking world domination. Eisenhower made Soviet threat key issue 1952 elections accusing Democrats soft communism lost China. Once power new administration quickly seek put views practice.

Long-Term Blowback

The coup caused long-lasting damage to U.S. reputation according documents released National Security Archive reflected book Mohammad Mosaddeq and 1953 Coup Iran: The 28 Mordad coup known Persian date Solar Hijri calendar watershed Iran Middle East standing United States region. Joint US-British operation ended Iran drive assert sovereign control own resources helped put end vibrant chapter history country nationalist democratic movements. These consequences resonated dramatic effect later years. When Shah finally fell 1979 memories US intervention 1953 which made possible monarch subsequent increasingly unpopular 25-year reign intensified anti-American character revolution minds many Iranians. Quoting Gasiorowski Byrne Mohammad Mosaddeq and 1953 Coup Iran. Authoritarian monarch appreciated coup Kermit Roosevelt wrote account affair I owe throne God my people army you By you he meant me two countries Great Britain United States I representing. We all heroes. On the 16th of June 2000 New York Times published secret CIA report Clandestine Service History Overthrow Premier Mossadeq of Iran November 1952 August 1953 partly explaining coup from CIA agent Wilber perspective. In related story New York Times reporter James Risen penned story revealing Wilber report hidden nearly five decades recently come light. Summer 2001 Ervand Abrahamian writes journal Science Society Wilber version coup missing key information some available elsewhere. New York Times recently leaked CIA report 1953 American-British overthrow Mosaddegh Iran Prime Minister billed report secret history secret coup treated invaluable substitute U.S. files remain inaccessible. But reconstruction coup other sources especially archives British Foreign Office indicates report highly sanitized. It glosses sensitive issues crucial participation U.S. ambassador actual overthrow role U.S. military advisers harnessing local Nazis Muslim terrorists use assassinations destabilize government. What is more places coup context Cold War rather Anglo-Iranian oil crisis classic case nationalism clashing imperialism Third World. Review Tim Weiner Legacy Ashes historian Michael Beschloss wrote Mr. Weiner argues bad C.I.A. track record encouraged many gravest contemporary problems... A generation Iranians grew knowing C.I.A. installed shah Mr. Weiner notes time chaos agency created streets Tehran would return haunt United States. The C.I.A.'s Missteps From Past Present New York Times the 12th of July 2007 administration Dwight D. Eisenhower considered coup success given blowback opinion no longer generally held because haunting terrible legacy. In 2000 Madeleine Albright U.S. Secretary State said intervention U.S. internal affairs Iran setback democratic government. Comments not apology. While Mrs. Albright did actually apologize U.S. Offers Olive Branch to Iran Retrieved the 6th of June 2009. Coup widely believed significantly contributed 1979 Iranian Revolution which deposed pro-Western Shah replaced monarchy anti-Western Islamic republic. International Journal Middle East Studies 19, 1987 p. 261 According U.S. President Obama For many Iranians coup demonstrated duplicity United States presented itself defender freedom hesitate use underhanded methods overthrow democratically elected government suit own economic strategic interests Agence France-Presse reported. United States Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas visited Iran both before after coup wrote When Mosaddegh and Persia started basic reforms we became alarmed. We united British destroy him succeeded ever since name honored one Middle East.

When did the 1953 Iranian coup d'état occur?

The 1953 Iranian coup d'état occurred on the 19th of August 1953. This event resulted in the overthrow of Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh and strengthened the rule of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.

Who organized the 1953 Iranian coup d'état against Mosaddegh?

British intelligence officials and the United States Central Intelligence Agency organized the 1953 Iranian coup d'état against Mosaddegh. UK Prime Minister Winston Churchill and the Eisenhower administration decided to overthrow Iran's government based on these joint efforts.

Why was oil nationalization a central issue in the 1953 Iranian coup d'état?

Oil nationalization was a central issue because it represented a clash between British imperial oil interests and Iranian nationalist movements seeking sovereign control over resources. Historians note that the success of Mosaddegh's nationalization threatened U.S. and British economic interests globally.

What role did the Tudeh Party play during the 1953 Iranian coup d'état?

The communist Tudeh Party played a significant role as a perceived threat used by Western powers to justify the coup, though historians argue this danger was largely rhetorical. During the street battles on the 19th of August 1953, Tudeh Party activists fought right-wing parties before being driven off by pro-Shah crowds.

How long was Mohammad Mosaddegh imprisoned after the 1953 Iranian coup d'état?

Mohammad Mosaddegh was sentenced to three years of solitary confinement in a military prison followed by house arrest until his death following the 1953 Iranian coup d'état. The Shah personally ordered the commutation of the original death sentence imposed on Mosaddegh.

1953 Iranian coup d'état.