Short answers, pulled from the story.
Mahmud of Ghazni declared himself the first true sultan in the year 998. This declaration marked the first time a Muslim sovereign claimed the title for himself, separating his authority from the theoretical supremacy of the caliph in Baghdad. His decision to mint coins bearing the title sultan signaled that a local ruler could possess practical sovereignty without needing the caliph's direct permission.
Hafsa Sultan was the first valide sultan, serving as the mother of Suleiman the Magnificent. The title sultan was granted to women of the Ottoman dynasty, replacing older designations like khatun for women and bey for men. During the period known as the Sultanate of Women, imperial women wielded power that rivaled that of the sultans themselves.
Sultan Selim I captured Cairo in the year 1517, and the title of caliph was formally passed to him by the last descendant of the Abbasid caliphs. This event blended the roles of sultan and caliph into a single, supreme authority, elevating the sultan's religious authority to claim leadership over the entire Muslim community. The Ottoman scholar Ebüssuûd Mehmet Efendi recognized Suleiman the Magnificent as the caliph and universal leader of all Muslims.
The Sultanate of Zanzibar ended its independence in 1964 when it united with Tanganyika to form Tanzania. The final sultan, Jamshid bin Abdullah, saw the end of the sultanate during this union, which reflected the broader trends of decolonization in Africa during the mid-20th century. The eighth Sultan of Zanzibar, Ali bin Hamud, ruled during a period of intense foreign interest before this event.
Mohamoud Ali Shire was the 20th Sultan of the Somali Sultanate of Warsangali. He led a resistance movement that challenged colonial powers in the Horn of Africa during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Warsangali Sultanate was located in northern Somalia and was known for its strategic importance, controlling key trade routes and ports along the Indian Ocean coast.
Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah is the current Sultan of Brunei and has ruled the nation since 1967. He is one of the longest-reigning monarchs in the world and holds absolute power as the head of state, head of government, and prime minister. The title sultan in Brunei is a living institution that shapes the country's political, economic, and social life.