Short answers, pulled from the story.
The American Marketing Association defines marketing as the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large. The association reviews this definition every three years, and the phrase society at large was added in 2008.
The 4Ps of marketing are product, price, promotion, and place. The first known mention is attributed to James Culliton, a Professor of Marketing at Harvard University, in the late 1940s, and the modern form was proposed in 1960 by E. Jerome McCarthy. Phillip Kotler popularised the model and helped spread it.
B2B, or business-to-business marketing, targets a business or organization, while B2C, or business-to-consumer marketing, promotes products and services to individual people. B2B purchasing is a formal process run by professional buyers across departments such as quality control, accounting, and logistics, with negotiation expected, whereas B2C purchasing is informal and prices in Western cultures are typically fixed.
In 1980 Philip Kotler defined marketing as satisfying needs and wants through an exchange process. By 2018 he defined it as the process by which companies engage customers, build strong customer relationships, and create customer value in order to capture value from customers in return.
The most commonly cited marketing orientations are the product concept, the production concept, the selling concept, the marketing concept, and the societal marketing concept. The production concept dominated practice from the 1860s to the 1930s, while the marketing concept is the most common customer-centric approach in contemporary marketing.
The product life cycle moves through introduction, growth, maturity, and decline. Advertising runs high at introduction to build awareness, more entrants join during growth, prices fall at maturity, and demand tapers off in decline, when a firm may discontinue the product unless it serves a niche market or complements another product.
Market research involves gathering information about a particular target market, while marketing research relates to all research conducted within marketing. Market research is a subset of marketing research, covering distribution, whereas marketing research also encompasses advertising effectiveness and salesforce effectiveness.