Settlement of Iceland
A layer of volcanic tephra sits beneath the soil near Vestmannaeyjar, holding fragments that might date back to the sixth century. Radiocarbon tests on these materials suggested human presence before 870 CE, yet scientists debate whether volcanic carbon dioxide skewed the results. Magnús Stefánsson argues that this early dating should be rejected entirely. Excavations in Reykjavík between 1971 and 1973 uncovered dwellings buried under the same Settlement Layer, forcing a reevaluation of when people first arrived. A cabin found in Hafnir was abandoned sometime between 770 and 880 CE, serving as a seasonal hunting outpost rather than a permanent home. Archaeologists have since dug into two longhouses at Stöðvarfjörður, with one structure potentially built as early as 800 CE. Bjarni F. Einarsson leads the team studying these sites and believes they were used by Scandinavians during summer months only. Orri Vésteinsson suggests a period of seasonal settlement existed before any permanent communities took root. The Íslendingabók records that Norsemen encountered Gaelic monks called papar upon their arrival. Sediment deposits in Kverkarhellir cave indicate people lived there around 800 CE alongside crosses carved in Hiberno-Scottish style. Ari Thorgilsson wrote that these monks departed because they refused to live among non-Christians.
Ingólfr Arnarson became the first person to sail to Iceland with the explicit purpose of settling the land permanently. Estimates suggest between 4,300 and 24,000 people migrated to the island during this Age of Settlement. Initial groups likely numbered between 311 and 436 individuals who established the first footholds. Genetic studies reveal a complex ancestry where 62% of matrilineal DNA comes from Scotland and Ireland while 75% of patrilineal DNA derives from Scandinavia. One study found the mean Norse ancestry among early settlers was 56%, compared to 70% in the modern population. Most settlers from Ireland and Scotland arrived as slaves and reproduced less successfully than higher-status Scandinavians. Available land attracted Viking Age Scandinavians despite the relatively warm climate existing at the time. Walrus ivory provided valuable resources for those seeking profit through trade. Greater resistance to Viking incursions in the British Isles pushed raiders toward peaceful opportunities elsewhere. Medieval sources emphasize how Harald Fairhair's centralization of Norway encouraged farmers to migrate away from burdensome taxes. Some settlers took land freely while others bought it or received gifts from earlier arrivals. Lands were likely not rented during the Age of settlement. Hans Kuhn argued that lands were given away because earlier settlers had no need for extensive holdings. Gunnar Karlsson noted it could be rational to encourage new settlers nearby to ease cattle maintenance and provide crisis insurance.
Mitochondrial DNA analysis shows that most female ancestors of Icelanders originated from the British Isles rather than Scandinavia. Y-chromosome studies indicate a strong male lineage tracing back to Scandinavian roots. Archaeogenetic evidence suggests the founding population included an even higher proportion of Irish and British Isles settlers than current figures show. One study found that mean Norse ancestry among Iceland's original settlers was 56%. In contrast, the current population displays 70% Norse ancestry. It is thought likely that most settlers from Ireland and Scotland came as slaves. These lower-status individuals reproduced less successfully than high-status settlers from Scandinavia. This reproductive difference explains why they are ancestors of a smaller proportion of the modern population. The genetic makeup reveals a mixed heritage that contradicts written sources emphasizing only Norwegian origins. Modern researchers rely on these biological markers to understand the true scale of migration. The data challenges traditional narratives about who actually populated the island. Scientists continue to refine their models based on new samples from ancient remains. The interplay between status and reproduction shaped the genetic landscape of the nation.
Naddoddr became the first Norseman to rest his feet on Icelandic soil according to medieval sagas. He stayed for only a short period but named the country Snæland or Land of Snow. Garðar Svavarsson followed him and was the first to stay over winter around 860 CE. A storm pushed Garðar's ship far north until he reached the eastern coast of Iceland. He sailed westward along the coast then up north, building a house in Húsavík. Garðar completed a full circle circumnavigating the island and establishing it was indeed an island mass. Náttfari decided to stay behind with two slaves near what is now Skjálfandi. Flóki Vilgerðarson arrived next and took three ravens to help find his way. One raven flew back to the Faroes while another returned to the ship. The third raven flew ahead leading them to Iceland where they landed in Vatnsfjörður. Faxi remarked that they had found great land so the bay facing Reykjavík is known as Faxaflói. A harsh winter caused all of Flóki's cattle to die and he cursed this cold country. When he spotted drift ice in the fjord he decided to name it Ísland or Iceland. Despite difficulties finding food he and his men stayed another year in Borgarfjörður before returning to Norway.
The Icelandic Commonwealth period began in 930 when the Althing assembly was founded at Þingvellir. Ari Thorgilsson claimed the country had been fully settled by that same year. Archaeological evidence shows immigrants continued to arrive throughout the tenth century despite official claims. Jesse L. Byock notes that Vikings adapted to an agrarian lifestyle after settling in Iceland. This shift meant abandoning raiding practices for community-minded conflict resolution methods. Self-governing nature led to emphasis on individual integrity within the new society. Feuds consistently showed restraint with few reaching beyond a vendetta point. Long-term feuding affected participation in social culture causing isolation during winter months. The small size of Iceland meant the us against them mentality did not last long. Less violent forms of vendetta replaced the pillaging common elsewhere in the Viking World. Ingólfr Arnarson cast high seat pillars overboard swearing he would settle where they drifted ashore. His slaves Vífill and Karli searched for the pillars while Hjörleifr was murdered by Irish slaves. Ingólfr hunted down and killed those responsible in the Westman Islands. The islands got their name from that event using vestmenn as the Old Norse term for Irish people. Karli complained about settling in this remote peninsula while Ingólfr built a farmstead in Reykjavík.
Prior to deforestation in the Middle Ages approximately 40% of Icelandic land was forested. Today the country is only about 2% forested according to current measurements. The Icelandic Forest Service aims to increase that share to 10% through reforestation efforts. Scholars argue settlers caused soil erosion through extensive deforestation and overgrazing practices. One study suggests the primary motive for deforestation was clearance for pastures and home-fields. This motive differed from settlers' requirements for fuel and building material alone. The drastic reduction of forest cover has left lasting scars on the landscape. Modern scientists work to restore what was lost during the initial settlement period. The environmental consequences remain visible today despite centuries of recovery attempts. Soil erosion continues to challenge agricultural productivity across large parts of the island. Reforestation projects aim to reverse some damage but full restoration remains distant.
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Common questions
When did the first Norsemen arrive in Iceland according to medieval sagas?
Naddoddr became the first Norseman to rest his feet on Icelandic soil. Garðar Svavarsson was the first to stay over winter around 860 CE.
Who was the first person to settle Iceland permanently and when did this happen?
Ingólfr Arnarson became the first person to sail to Iceland with the explicit purpose of settling the land permanently. The Icelandic Commonwealth period began in 930 when the Althing assembly was founded at Þingvellir.
What percentage of matrilineal DNA comes from Scotland and Ireland for modern Icelanders?
Genetic studies reveal that 62% of matrilineal DNA comes from Scotland and Ireland while 75% of patrilineal DNA derives from Scandinavia. Mitochondrial DNA analysis shows that most female ancestors of Icelanders originated from the British Isles rather than Scandinavia.
How much forest covered Iceland before deforestation occurred in the Middle Ages?
Prior to deforestation in the Middle Ages approximately 40% of Icelandic land was forested. Today the country is only about 2% forested according to current measurements.
Did permanent communities exist in Iceland before 870 CE based on archaeological evidence?
Archaeologists have dug into two longhouses at Stöðvarfjörður, with one structure potentially built as early as 800 CE. A cabin found in Hafnir was abandoned sometime between 770 and 880 CE serving as a seasonal hunting outpost rather than a permanent home.