Peregrinus (Roman)
In the early Roman Empire, from 30 BC to AD 212, a peregrinus was a free provincial subject of the Empire who was not a Roman citizen. The Latin word peregrinus means foreigner or one from abroad. It derives from the adverb peregre, which combines per- meaning through and ager meaning field or country. This etymology suggests movement over lands rather than belonging to them. During the Roman Republic, the term simply denied any person without full citizenship status. In practice during the Imperial era, it became limited to subjects within the Empire's borders. People living outside these borders were called barbari instead. The distinction mattered because legal rights depended entirely on whether someone fell inside or outside this category.
Peregrini constituted the vast majority of the Empire's inhabitants in the first two centuries AD. Estimates place their number between 80% and 90% of all people under Roman rule. By 49 BC, all Italians had become Roman citizens. Outside Italy, some provinces with intensive colonization likely held a citizen majority by Augustus' reign. Gallia Narbonensis in southern France, Hispania Baetica in Andalusia Spain, and Africa proconsularis in Tunisia are examples. Frontier provinces tell a different story. One estimate puts Roman citizens in Britain around AD 100 at about 50,000 people. That figure represents less than 3% of the total provincial population of roughly 1.7 million. In the empire as a whole, there were just over 6 million Roman citizens in AD 47. This was only 9% of a total imperial population generally estimated at 70 million at that time.
Peregrini received only basic rights under ius gentium, known as law of peoples. This system derived from commercial laws developed by Greek city-states. It regulated relations between citizens and non-citizens but lacked many protections found in ius civile. Criminal law offered no shield against torture during official interrogations for peregrini. They faced de plano summary justice including execution at the discretion of the legatus Augusti provincial governor. Roman citizens could not be tortured and insisted on full hearings before assize courts. These courts rotated locations and involved senior officials advising the governor. Defendants had the right to employ legal counsel. Citizens also enjoyed appeal rights directly to the emperor especially regarding death sentences. Civil disputes involving citizens followed elaborate Roman civil law rules while peregrini remained subject to customary local laws. Governors often swayed verdicts based on social status or bribery rather than jurisprudence. Roman law always prevailed over local customs when conflicts arose.
In the fiscal sphere, peregrini were subject to direct taxes called tributum. They paid an annual poll tax known as tributum capitis which became a major source of imperial revenue. Roman citizens were exempt from this specific levy. Land taxes called tributum soli formed the most important revenue stream payable on most provincial land. Land in Italy was exempt along with probably land owned by Roman colonies outside Italy. In military matters, peregrini were excluded from service in the legions entirely. They could only enlist in less prestigious auxiliary regiments instead. At the end of a 25-year term, both the soldier and his children received citizenship. This exclusion created a stark divide between those who served in elite units and those restricted to supporting roles despite their numbers dominating the empire's population.
Each province divided into three types of local authority including coloniae founded by retired legionary veterans. Municipia held Latin Rights offering half-citizenship while civitates peregrinae governed peregrinus territories. These civitates rested on pre-Roman city-state or indigenous tribal territories minus lands confiscated after conquest. The governor possessed absolute power to intervene yet operated with minimal bureaucracy lacking resources for micro-management. Provided tribes collected assessed annual taxes and maintained trunk roads, they ran affairs largely autonomously. Native aristocracies often ruled these areas as descendants of pre-conquest leaders though many lost significant land during invasion periods. Elites dominated councils and executive magistracies based on traditional institutions deciding disputes via customary law. When chief towns gained municipium status elected leaders and entire councils up to 100 men automatically received citizenship. Romans counted on native elites maintaining order ensuring loyalty through substantial favors like grants of land or enrollment in senatorial order if property thresholds were met. Privileges entrenched wealth and power among aristocracies at the expense of mass peregrini populations.
The Roman Empire functioned overwhelmingly as an agricultural economy where over 80% of people lived and worked on land. Rights over land use determined wealth most significantly. Conquest likely downgraded average peregrinus peasants benefiting Rome state private owners and loyal native elites instead. Senatorial orders owned vast latifundia large estates across provinces. Pliny the Younger noted half all land in Africa proconsularis belonged to just six private landlords under Nero ruling from 54 to 68 AD. Any outsider joining the hereditary senatorial order needed a high property qualification of 250,000 denarii. Lands formerly belonging to unconditionally surrendering peoples became state property assigned partly to colonists sold off raising money for treasury or retained as ager publicus imperial estates. Egypt serves best documentation due surviving papyri showing probably one-third land became state-owned. Evidence suggests peregrini lost ownership of over half their land resulting from conquest combining imperial estates colonial assignments sales to private owners. Free peasants farming same plots generations found themselves reduced tenants paying rent absentee landlords agents managing imperial estates even when new landlord local tribal aristocrat free peasant worse off owing fees grazing herds previously communal pastures.
Proportion of Roman citizens grew steadily over time through various mechanisms. Emperors occasionally granted citizenship en bloc entire cities tribes provinces like emperor Otho's grant to Lingones civitas Gaul in AD 69. Whole auxiliary regiments received grants for exceptional service too. Individuals acquired citizenship individually either serving minimum 25-year auxilia term receiving special imperial grant merit status. Provincial governor key person granting citizenship though awards made only by emperor acting generally on governor recommendations letters Pliny Younger show. As governor Bithynia Pliny successfully lobbied boss emperor Trajan ruling 98-117 AD granting citizenship number provincials friends assistants. Bribery governors other high officials undoubtedly much-used route wealthy peregrini gaining citizenship commander Roman auxiliaries arresting St Paul Apostle AD 60 confessed becoming citizen paying large amount money. Cities granted municipium status acquired Latin rights including connubium right marry Roman citizen children inheriting citizenship provided father held citizenship.
In AD 212 the constitutio Antoniniana issued by Emperor Caracalla ruled 211-117 granted Roman citizenship all free subjects exception dediticii people subject Rome surrender war freed slaves. Contemporary historian Dio Cassius ascribed financial motive decision suggesting Caracalla wanted make peregrini subject two indirect taxes applying only citizens: five percent levies inheritances manumission slaves both increased ten percent good measure. These taxes likely outweighed loss annual poll tax previously paid peregrini now exempt as Roman citizens. Imperial government unlikely foregone revenue therefore almost certain Antonine decree accompanied further decree ending Roman citizens exemption direct taxes. Citizens certainly paying poll tax time Emperor Diocletian ruling 282-305. Antonine decree greatly increased imperial tax base primarily obliging Roman citizens perhaps 20-30% population pay direct taxes poll land tax owners Italian land Roman coloniae.
Continue Browsing
Common questions
What is the definition of a peregrinus in the Roman Empire?
A peregrinus was a free provincial subject of the Roman Empire who was not a Roman citizen. The Latin word means foreigner or one from abroad and derives from the adverb peregre which combines per meaning through and ager meaning field or country.
When did the constitutio Antoniniana grant citizenship to all free subjects?
The constitutio Antoniniana issued by Emperor Caracalla granted Roman citizenship to all free subjects in AD 212. This decree excluded dediticii people subject to Rome surrender war freed slaves and applied during the reign of Emperor Caracalla ruling 211-117.
How many Roman citizens existed in the empire in AD 47?
There were just over 6 million Roman citizens in AD 47 representing only 9% of a total imperial population generally estimated at 70 million at that time. Estimates place peregrini as the vast majority of inhabitants between 80% and 90% of all people under Roman rule.
Why were peregrini excluded from service in the legions?
Peregrini were excluded from service in the legions entirely because they could only enlist in less prestigious auxiliary regiments instead. At the end of a 25-year term both the soldier and his children received citizenship creating a stark divide between those who served in elite units and those restricted to supporting roles.
What taxes did peregrini pay compared to Roman citizens?
Peregrini were subject to direct taxes called tributum including an annual poll tax known as tributum capitis which became a major source of imperial revenue. Roman citizens were exempt from this specific levy while land taxes called tributum soli formed the most important revenue stream payable on most provincial land.