Iwakura Mission

• 1. Mission Origins And Objectives

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  Guido Verbeck, a Dutch missionary and engineer stationed in Japan, proposed the diplomatic voyage that became known as the Iwakura Mission. His suggestion drew inspiration from the Grand Embassy of Peter I, which had sent Russian nobles to study Western Europe centuries earlier. The Japanese government accepted this proposal with three clear goals in mind. First, they sought international recognition for Emperor Meiji and his newly reinstated imperial dynasty after years of internal conflict. Second, the delegation aimed to begin preliminary renegotiation of unequal treaties imposed by dominant world powers during the previous era. Third, members intended to make a comprehensive study of modern industrial, political, military, and educational systems across the United States and Europe.

  This mission followed several earlier attempts made by the Shogunate before 1868. A Japanese Embassy traveled to the United States in 1860, while two separate embassies visited Europe in 1862 and 1863 respectively. Those earlier efforts laid groundwork but lacked the scale and authority of the upcoming expedition. The Iwakura Mission represented a decisive shift toward active engagement with global powers rather than passive isolation.

• 2. Key Figures And Student Delegates

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  Iwakura Tomomi served as extraordinary and plenipotentiary ambassador leading the entire delegation. Four vice-ambassadors assisted him, including Okubo Toshimichi, Kido Takayoshi, and Ito Hirobumi, all holding ministerial positions within the Japanese government at that time. Historian Kume Kunitake acted as private secretary to Iwakura Tomomi and kept detailed records throughout the journey. His log later formed the basis for an official publication released in five volumes under the title Tokumei Zenken Taishi Bei-O Kairan Jikki in 1878.

  The group included approximately 48 administrators and scholars alongside about 53 students and attendants who joined the outward voyage from Yokohama. Several young women remained behind in foreign countries to complete their education after returning home. Tsuda Umeko was only six years old when she departed Japan yet eventually founded Joshi Eigaku Juku in 1900, which evolved into present-day Tsuda University. Other notable students included Nagai Shigeko, later Baroness Uryu Shigeko, and Yamakawa Sutematsu, who became Princess Oyama Sutematsu. Kaneko Kentaro stayed in the United States and later introduced Theodore Roosevelt to Japanese affairs during the Russo-Japanese War negotiations.

• 3. American Industrial Observations

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  On December 23rd of 1871, a party of one hundred Japanese leaders, officials, and students set sail from Yokohama aboard a vessel bound for San Francisco. They arrived on January 15th of 1872 and traveled by train through Salt Lake City and Chicago before reaching Washington D.C. on February 29th. The delegation visited schools, universities, and industrial locations across Boston, New York, and the nation's capital to understand socio-economic developments.

  Members showed keen interest in educational policy and toured numerous institutions while examining factories and manufacturing processes. Their stay extended beyond initial plans as they attempted to negotiate new treaty rights requiring two members to return home temporarily for official documentation. Despite these efforts failing to revise existing unequal treaties, the experience provided strong impetus for future modernization initiatives upon their eventual return to Japan.

• 4. British Manufacturing And Culture

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  The Iwakura Mission arrived at Liverpool on August 17th of 1872 aboard the Cunard steamer Olympus. Traveling via Manchester, the group spent late August and early September inspecting political, academic, and military institutions throughout London. They visited the British Museum, rode the newly constructed Underground railway system, and attended concerts at the Royal Albert Hall. Additional trips included visits to Portsmouth dockyards, Brighton, Blair Atholl in Scotland, Edinburgh, Yorkshire Dales, Newcastle upon Tyne, Bradford, and Glasgow.

  France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Prussia, Denmark, Sweden, Austria, Italy, and Switzerland all received official visits during the first half of 1873. The mission stopped briefly in Egypt, Aden, Ceylon, Singapore, Saigon, Hong Kong, and Shanghai on their return journey though these locations required much shorter durations than previous stops. They eventually reached Yokohama again on September 13th of 1873 nearly two full years after departing initially.

  During continental tours, members observed diverse governmental structures and cultural institutions across multiple nations. Their itinerary included meetings with political leaders such as French President Thiers who hosted them on December 26th of 1872. These encounters provided comparative

• 5. Continental European Tours

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  insights into how different European states managed industrialization and social reform efforts compared to American models previously studied.

  Of the three initial goals set forth at departure, only one remained unachieved: revision of unequal treaties proved impossible despite extending the mission by almost four months. Critics argued some members exceeded their mandate while attempting negotiations under better conditions with foreign governments. Nevertheless, favorable impressions gained from observing industrial modernization in America and Europe created strong momentum for similar initiatives back home.

  Makino Nobuaki later remarked that dispatching this mission alongside abolishing han systems constituted foundational events building Japan's state structure after restoration. Nakae Chomin stayed behind in France studying legal systems under radical republican Emile Acollas before becoming a journalist introducing Rousseau's

• 6. Diplomatic Outcomes And Legacy

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  ideas domestically. Commemoration events marking anniversaries occurred decades later including celebrations held in Manchester Town Hall during 1997 and symposia organized at Japan House London in April 2023 honoring the legacy of these diplomatic travels.