Greek fire
The year 672 marked a turning point for the Byzantine Empire when Arab fleets threatened Constantinople. Chronicler Theophanes the Confessor attributes the invention of Greek fire to Kallinikos, a Jewish architect from Heliopolis in Syria. This man fled the Muslim conquests and arrived in Constantinople with knowledge that saved the city. He did not work alone. Historian James Partington suggests chemists in Constantinople inherited discoveries from the Alexandrian chemical school. The weapon emerged during a period of desperate weakness for the empire. Long wars with Sassanid Persia had drained resources before the Arab onslaught began. Within a generation, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt fell to Arab forces. The first siege of Constantinople occurred in 674. Greek fire helped repel these attacks. A second siege followed in 718. The substance proved decisive again. Records show its use in later naval battles against Saracens was sporadic but effective. It secured victories during Byzantine expansion in the late ninth and early tenth centuries. Civil wars also utilized this technology. The revolt of thematic fleets happened in 727. Thomas the Slav led a large-scale rebellion between 821 and 823. In both cases, rebel fleets were defeated by the central Imperial fleet using Greek fire. The Byzantines used it against Rus raids on the Bosporus in 941 and 1043. They blockaded the Danube during the Bulgarian war of 970, 971.
Modern scholars agree that Greek fire was based on petroleum mixed with resins. This mixture resembles modern napalm in composition. Early theories claimed saltpeter was the chief ingredient. This view relied on descriptions of thunder and smoke accompanying discharge. Chemist Marcellin Berthelot supported this position during the nineteenth century. Saltpeter did not appear in warfare before the thirteenth century however. Muslim writers from the early medieval world never mentioned it. Another theory suggested quicklime caused an explosive reaction with water. Experiments showed the result would be negligible in open sea conditions. A third proposition involved calcium phosphide made by boiling bones in urine. This substance releases phosphine which ignites spontaneously upon contact with water. Extensive experiments failed to reproduce the intensity described in historical accounts. Most evidence points to crude or refined petroleum as the base. The Byzantines had access to oil wells around Tmutorakan near the Black Sea. Historian Procopius recorded naphtha, known as Median oil, as a basic ingredient. Resins were added as a thickener to increase flame duration. A surviving ninth-century Latin text identifies naphtha as the main component. An Italian recipe from the sixteenth century included charcoal, saltpeter, alcohol, sulfur, incense, tar, wool, and camphor. This concoction could burn under water but served recreational purposes.
The chief method of deployment involved projection through a tube called a siphon. These tubes were installed on the prow of dromons under the forecastle. Additional devices could be placed amidships or astern depending on tactical needs. Portable projectors known as cheirosiphones appeared in military documents of the tenth century. Emperor Leo VI claimed he invented these hand-held flamethrowers. They were used against siege towers and defenders on walls. John Haldon and Maurice Byrne designed a hypothetical apparatus consisting of three components. A bronze pump pressurized the oil inside an airtight tank. A brazier heated the oil using linen or flax matches. The nozzle swiveled to aim at targets. Heat shields made of iron protected operators from intense flames. Experiments conducted by Haldon in 2002 tested this mechanism. Modern welding techniques failed to secure adequate insulation initially. Relocating the pressure pump between the tank and nozzle solved the problem. The full-scale device achieved flame temperatures over one thousand degrees Celsius. Effective range reached up to fifty meters. The stream of fire projected downwards rather than curving upwards. Medieval galleys had low profiles so high-arcing flames would miss them entirely. Jars filled with Greek fire and caltrops wrapped with tow were thrown by catapults. Pivoting cranes called gerania poured the substance onto enemy ships.
Anna Komnene described a naval battle against the Pisans in 1099 where beast-shaped projectors were mounted on ship bows. Lions or other land-animals made of brass or iron had open mouths through which fire passed. This design terrified enemies as if monsters vomited fire. Viking Ingvar the Far-Travelled faced ships equipped with these weapons during his travels. He reported a great din followed by much fire flying from a bronze tube. One ship burned up quickly leaving only white ashes. The Muslim navies adapted by staying out of effective range. They devised protection methods using felt or hides soaked in vinegar. Despite limitations, Greek fire remained decisive in many battles. John Julius Norwich stated it was impossible to exaggerate its importance in Byzantine history. The weapon did not make the navy invincible however. It lacked the power of a naval ram which had fallen out of use. Siphon-deployed versions had limited range and required calm seas. Favorable wind conditions were necessary for safe operation. Records show Arab forces captured at least one fireship intact in 827. Bulgars captured several siphons and quantities of the substance itself in 814 or 815. These captures did not allow enemies to copy the method of deployment. Arabs used various incendiary substances but relied on catapults and grenades instead.
Emperor Constantine Porphyrogennetos warned his son Romanos II never to reveal the secrets of composition. He claimed an angel showed him how to prepare this fire for Christians only within the imperial city. An official bribed into handing over some substance was struck down by a flame from heaven before entering a church. The state secret surrounding the formula disappeared forever eventually. Knowledge of the whole system was highly compartmentalized. Operators and technicians knew secrets of only one component. This ensured no enemy could gain knowledge of it entirely. When Bulgarians took Mesembria and Debeltos in 814, they captured thirty-six siphons. They also seized quantities of the substance itself. Yet they made no use of them. Anna Komnene noted that the general disarmament of the Empire occurred in the twenty years leading up to the sack of Constantinople. Some suggest access to primary ingredients was lost. Others believe the secret had been lost over time. Records indicate Greek fire continued to be mentioned during the twelfth century. No report confirms its use during the siege of Constantinople in 1203 by the Fourth Crusade. A 19th-century Armenian named Kavafian approached Ottoman authorities with a new type he claimed to have developed. He refused to reveal its composition when asked. Imperial authorities poisoned him shortly after without discovering his secret.
William Golding wrote a play called The Brass Butterfly in 1958 where an inventor demonstrates explosives to a Roman Emperor. Victor Canning published Honour Bright in 1960 featuring a crusader returning with a casket of Greek Fire from Athens. Rick Riordan described Greek Fire as a volatile green liquid in his Greek storyline. It explodes spreading out over an area and burning continuously. Michael Crichton's novel Timeline features Professor Edward Johnston claiming knowledge of automatic fire or fire of Athênaios of Naukratis in fourteenth-century Europe. Mika Waltari's novel The Dark Angel mentions old men who knew the secret before the Fall of Constantinople. They planned to be killed so Turks would not learn it. George R.R. Martin created wildfire similar to Greek fire for his fantasy series A Song of Ice and Fire. Guy Gavriel Kay deployed Sarantine fire through tanks and nozzles in his Sarantine Mosaic duology. Blackbeard's ship Queen Anne's Revenge used Greek fire in the 2011 film Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides. Ezio Auditore escaped Istanbul using a hand projector on an Ottoman ship in Assassin's Creed: Revelations released by Ubisoft in 2011. Soldiers in the fictional city of Kitezh used Greek fire in Rise of the Tomb Raider released by Crystal Dynamics in 2015.
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Common questions
Who invented Greek fire and when did it first appear?
Kallinikos, a Jewish architect from Heliopolis in Syria, invented Greek fire during the year 672. The weapon emerged to help repel Arab fleets threatening Constantinople that same year.
What was the chemical composition of Greek fire used by the Byzantine Empire?
Modern scholars agree that Greek fire consisted of petroleum mixed with resins as its primary ingredients. Historical evidence points to crude or refined petroleum sourced from oil wells near Tmutorakan around the Black Sea.
How did the Byzantines deploy Greek fire during naval battles?
The chief method involved projecting the substance through tubes called siphons installed on the prow of dromons. Portable projectors known as cheirosiphones appeared in military documents of the tenth century for use against siege towers.
When did Greek fire disappear from recorded history after the fall of Constantinople?
No report confirms the use of Greek fire during the siege of Constantinople in 1203 by the Fourth Crusade. Records indicate the substance continued to be mentioned during the twelfth century before disappearing forever.
Why could enemies not copy the formula for Greek fire despite capturing it?
Knowledge of the whole system remained highly compartmentalized so operators and technicians knew secrets of only one component. Emperor Constantine Porphyrogennetos warned his son Romanos II never to reveal the secrets of composition to anyone outside the imperial city.