Flush toilet
Archaeologists in China announced the discovery of remains from a 2,400-year-old lavatory at the Yueyang site in Xi'an during February 2023. This ancient facility included broken parts and a bent flush pipe found among palace ruins by researchers from the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences' Institute of Archeology. Forms of water flushed latrines existed since the Neolithic period with Mesopotamians introducing clay sewer pipes around 4000 BCE. The earliest examples appeared at the Temple of Bel at Nippur and at Eshnunna to remove wastewater and capture rainwater. The city of Uruk hosted the earliest known brick constructed latrines from 3200 BCE featuring both squat and pedestal designs. Clay pipes were later used in the Hittite city of Hattusa where they had easily detachable segments allowing for cleaning. Flush toilet systems were constructed by people of the Indus Civilization while Egyptians and Minoan civilization followed suit. The latter developed flushable pedestal toilets by the second millennium BC with excavations at Knossos and Akrotiri revealing these early innovations. The oldest neolithic village in Britain dating from circa 31st century BC was Skara Brae in Orkney which used hydraulic technology for sanitation. The village design utilized a stream and connecting drainage system to wash waste away. Communal latrines operated throughout the Roman Empire feeding into primary or secondary sewers from the first through fifth centuries AD. A well-preserved example exists at Housesteads on Hadrian's Wall in Britain though these did not flush in the modern sense. They featured continuous streams of running water to wash away waste instead of discrete flushing actions.
Sir John Harington published A New Discourse of a Stale Subject, Called the Metamorphosis of Ajax in 1596 describing a forerunner to the modern flush toilet installed at his house in Kelston Somerset. Kinghorn supervised a modern reconstruction in 1981 based on the illustrated description by Harington's assistant Thomas Coombe. The design included a flush valve to let water out of the tank and a wash-down design to empty the bowl. He installed one for his godmother Queen Elizabeth I at Richmond Palace. A crucial advance in plumbing arrived when Scottish mechanic Alexander Cumming invented the S-trap in 1775. This device uses standing water to seal the outlet of the bowl preventing escape of foul air from the sewer. His design had a sliding valve in the bowl outlet above the trap. Two years later Samuel Prosser applied for a British patent for a plunger closet. Prolific inventor Joseph Bramah began his professional career installing water closets based on Alexander Cumming's patented design of 1775. He found that current models being installed in London houses had a tendency to freeze in cold weather. In collaboration with Mr. Allen he improved the design by replacing the usual slide valve with a hinged flap sealing the bottom of the bowl. He also developed a float valve system for the flush tank obtaining the patent for it in 1778. Bramah began making toilets at a workshop in Denmark Street St Giles where production continued well into the 19th century mainly used on boats.
It was only in the mid-19th century with growing levels of urbanization and industrial prosperity that the flush toilet became widely used and marketed. George Jennings established a business manufacturing water closets salt-glaze drainage sanitary pipes and sanitaryware at Parkstone Pottery in the 1840s. At the Great Exhibition held from the 1st of May to the 15th of October 1851 Jennings installed his Monkey Closets in the Retiring Rooms of The Crystal Palace. These were the first public pay toilets causing great excitement during the exhibition. Eight hundred twenty-seven thousand two hundred eighty visitors paid one penny to use them receiving a clean seat towel comb and shoe shine. To spend a penny became a euphemism for going to the toilet. When the exhibition finished and moved to Sydenham the toilets earned more than £1000 per year. Thomas William Twyford invented the single piece ceramic flush toilet while another pioneering manufacturer emerged. The 1870s proved to be a defining period for the sanitary industry and the water closet debate between simple trap basins and elaborate mechanical systems fell under public scrutiny. In 1875 the wash-out trap water closet was first sold found as the public's preference for basin type water closets. By 1879 Twyford had devised his own type of the wash out trap water closet titled the National becoming the most popular wash-out water closet. By the 1880s the free-standing water closet was on sale quickly gaining popularity because it could be cleaned more easily. Twyford's Unitas model was free-standing made completely of earthenware. Throughout the 1880s he submitted further patents for improvements to the flushing rim and outlet. Finally in 1888 he applied for patent protection for his after flush chamber allowing the basin to refill by lower quantity of clean water.
Thomas Crapper did not invent the flush toilet but was in the forefront of the industry in the late 19th century holding nine patents including three for water closet improvements like the floating ballcock. In 1880 Thomas Crapper introduced the U-shaped trap while his flush toilets were designed by inventor Albert Giblin who received a British patent for the Silent Valveless Water Waste Preventer siphon discharge system. William Elvis Sloan invented the Flushometer in 1906 using pressurized water directly from the supply line for faster recycle time between flushes. The Flushometer is still in use today in public restrooms worldwide. The vortex-flushing toilet bowl creating a self-cleansing effect was invented by Thomas MacAvity Stewart of Saint John New Brunswick in 1907. Philip Haas of Dayton Ohio made significant developments including the flush rim toilet with multiple jets of water from a ring. A number of tipping bucket type cisterns have been developed placing a tipping bucket inside the cistern with its axis aligned or perpendicular. They feature a lever rotated emptying the bucket allowing variable flush quantities marked on the cistern. Dual flush versions provide shorter flush options by allowing air into the siphon to stop action before tank empties. Pressure-assisted toilets sometimes found in private and light commercial installations use products from several companies consuming gallons per flush. The mechanism consists of plastic tank hidden inside typical ceramic cistern or exposed metal tank where air trapped inside compresses when filling stops. When air pressure reaches certain level high-pressure valve holds air and water until user activates via button releasing pressurized water at higher flow rate than gravity-flow toilet.
Although flush toilets first appeared in Britain they soon spread to the Continent with examples installed in Christiania January 1859 possibly imported from Britain as referred to by English term waterclosets in insurance ledger. Another early watercloset dating from 1860 was imported from Britain to be installed in rooms of Queen Victoria in Ehrenburg Palace Coburg Germany. She was the only one allowed to use it. Flush toilets were sold in Batavia Dutch East Indies in 1872. In America chain-pull indoor toilet introduced in homes of wealthy and hotels soon after invention in England during 1880s. Flush toilets were introduced in 1890s while William Elvis Sloan invented the Flushometer in 1906 using pressurized water directly from supply line for faster recycle time between flushes. The company Caroma in Australia developed Duoset cistern with two buttons and two flush volumes as water-saving measure in 1980. Modern versions save average household 67% normal water usage. In many parts of Asia people traditionally use toilet in squatting position applying to defecation and urination by males and females. Homes and public washrooms have squat toilets with bowl installed in floor offering advantages like not needing additional seat. Western-style toilets mounted at sitting height with plastic seat became popular as well. Many public washrooms have both squatting and sitting toilets. Anglo-Indian design used in India allows same toilet to be used in sitting or squatting position. Valve closet has valve or flap at exit of bowl often with watertight seal retaining pool of water in pan.
Since 1994 significant move towards using less water for flushing toilets resulted in emergence of low flush designs and local national standards on water consumption. US Congress passed Energy Policy Act of 1992 mandating common flush toilets use only gallons per flush from 1994. Manufacturers produced low-flow toilets consumers disliked because they required more than one flush to remove solids. People unhappy with reduced performance drove across border to Canada or Mexico buying salvaged toilets from older buildings. Manufacturers responded improving products generally identified as high efficiency toilets HETs possessing effective flush volume of gallons or less. They may be single-flush or dual-flush permitting selection between different amounts of water for solid or liquid waste. Pre-1994 residential and pre-1997 commercial flush toilets typically used five gallons per flush while modern low-flush designs allow much less water per flush. Dual flush toilets allow user select between flush for urine or feces saving significant amount over conventional units. Raw water flushing including seawater flushing method where raw water such as seawater used for flush toilets. Such systems used in majority cities towns Hong Kong Gibraltar Avalon California United States. Heads on ships typically flushed with seawater. Flush toilets if plumbed can use greywater previously used washing dishes laundry bathing rather drinkable potable water.
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Common questions
When was the 2400-year-old lavatory discovered at the Yueyang site in Xi'an?
Archaeologists announced the discovery of remains from a 2400-year-old lavatory at the Yueyang site in Xi'an during February 2023. This ancient facility included broken parts and a bent flush pipe found among palace ruins by researchers from the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences' Institute of Archeology.
Who invented the S-trap for flush toilets and when did this invention occur?
Scottish mechanic Alexander Cumming invented the S-trap in 1775 to seal the outlet of the bowl using standing water. His design prevented foul air from escaping the sewer while featuring a sliding valve in the bowl outlet above the trap.
What happened at the Great Exhibition held from the 1st of May to the 15th of October 1851 regarding public toilets?
George Jennings installed his Monkey Closets in the Retiring Rooms of The Crystal Palace as the first public pay toilets during the exhibition. Eight hundred twenty-seven thousand two hundred eighty visitors paid one penny to use them receiving a clean seat towel comb and shoe shine which led to the euphemism to spend a penny for going to the toilet.
Did Thomas Crapper invent the flush toilet or what was his actual contribution to the industry?
Thomas Crapper did not invent the flush toilet but was in the forefront of the industry in the late 19th century holding nine patents including three for water closet improvements like the floating ballcock. In 1880 he introduced the U-shaped trap while his flush toilets were designed by inventor Albert Giblin who received a British patent for the Silent Valveless Water Waste Preventer siphon discharge system.
When did the US Congress mandate common flush toilets use only gallons per flush starting from 1994?
US Congress passed Energy Policy Act of 1992 mandating common flush toilets use only gallons per flush from 1994. Pre-1994 residential and pre-1997 commercial flush toilets typically used five gallons per flush while modern low-flush designs allow much less water per flush.