East African campaign (World War II)

• 1. Origins Of Italian East Africa

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  On the 9th of May 1936, the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini proclaimed the formation of Italian East Africa from Ethiopia after the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. This new colony combined the colonies of Italian Eritrea and Italian Somaliland into a single administrative unit. Amedeo Duke of Aosta arrived in November 1937 to serve as Viceroy and Governor-General with headquarters in Addis Ababa. By June 1940, the Italian military forces in Libya threatened Egypt while those in Italian East Africa endangered British and French colonies in East Africa. The Italian General Staff had planned for war only after 1942 but Italy was far from ready for long occupation or large-scale warfare. On the 10th of June 1940 Mussolini declared war on Britain and France which closed the Mediterranean to Allied merchant ships. Italian belligerence endangered British sea lanes along the coast of East Africa the Gulf of Aden the Red Sea and the Suez Canal. The Kingdom of Egypt remained neutral during the Second World War but terms of the Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936 allowed the British to occupy Egypt and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.

• 2. British Strategic Planning And Command

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  In mid-1939 General Archibald Wavell was appointed General Officer Commanding-in-Chief of the new Middle East Command over the Mediterranean and Middle East theatres. Wavell coordinated military operations with Admiral Andrew Cunningham Commander-in-Chief Mediterranean Vice-Admiral Ralph Leatham Commander-in-Chief East Indies and General Robert Cassels Commander-in-Chief India. In July 1939 Wavell devised a strategy to defend then dominate the Mediterranean as a base to attack Germany through eastern and south-eastern Europe. The conquest of Italian East Africa came second only to defence of Egypt and the Suez Canal. In August Wavell ordered plans made quickly to gain control of the Red Sea specifying offensive operations from Djibouti to Harar and then Addis Ababa or Kassala to Asmara preferably on both lines simultaneously. Wavell reconnoitred East Africa in January 1940 and the theatre was formally added to his responsibilities. He expected that the Somalilands could be defended with minor reinforcement if Italy joined the war Ethiopia would be invaded as soon as there were sufficient troops. In November 1940 British gained an intelligence advantage when Government Code and Cypher School at Bletchley Park broke high grade cypher of Italian Army in East Africa.

• 3. The Northern Front Campaigns

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  On the 4th of July 1940 an Italian force of about 25,000 from Eritrea advanced on railway junction at Kassala forcing British garrison of Sudan Defence Force to retire after inflicting casualties. On the 6th of November 1940 the 10th Indian Infantry Brigade attacked Gallabat fort while field artillery bombarded Metemma. The Indians reached Gallabat and fought hand-to-hand with 65th Infantry Division Granatieri di Savoia and some Eritrean troops in fort. Three British tanks knocked out by mines and six by mechanical failure caused by rocky ground. On the 31st of January 1941 five Italian colonial battalions counter-attacked with mountain artillery support forcing back Indians. Early on the 27th of March Keren captured after battle lasting 53 days for British and Commonwealth loss of killed and Italian losses of wounded plus 9,000 Ascari killed. Italians conducted fighting withdrawal under air attack to Ad Teclesan last defensible position before Asmara. When British attacked early on the 31st of March position fell and prisoners taken; Asmara declared open town next day. By the 8th of April Admiral Mario Bonetti surrendered Massawa ending organised resistance in Eritrea.

• 4. Guerilla Warfare In Western Ethiopia

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  In August 1939 Wavell ordered covert plan to encourage rebellion in western Ethiopian province of Gojjam which Italians had never been able to repress. Colonel Daniel Sandford arrived to run project but until Italian declaration of war conspiracy held back by government policy of appeasement. Mission 101 formed to coordinate activities of Ethiopian resistance. In June 1940 Selassie arrived in Egypt then went to Sudan to meet Platt discuss plans recapture Ethiopia despite Platt reservations. In July British recognised Selassie as emperor and in August Mission 101 entered Gojjam province reconnoitre. Major Orde Wingate sent to Khartoum with assistant join headquarters of Sudan Defence Force. On the 20th of November Wingate flown to Sakhala meet Sandford RAF managed bomb Dangila drop propaganda leaflets supply Mission 101 raising Ethiopian morale. Mission 101 persuaded Arbegnoch north of Lake Tana spring several ambushes on Metemma-Gondar road. Italian garrison at Wolkait withdrawn February 1941. Gideon Force small British African special forces unit acted as Corps d'Elite among Sudan Defence Force Ethiopian regular forces and Arbegnoch.

• 5. Naval Blockades And The Red Sea

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  With Italian declaration of war on the 10th of June loss of French naval support Mediterranean after Armistice the 22nd of June long Red Sea passage to Suez became main British sea route Middle East. Principal Italian naval force Red Sea Flotilla based Massawa Eritrea about 500 miles north Bab-el-Mandeb well placed attack Allied convoys. British code-breakers Government Code and Cypher School Bletchley Park England deciphered Italian orders the 19th of May coded using C38m machines secretly mobilise army air force East Africa. Merchant traffic stopped the 24th of May pending introduction convoy system. Red Sea Force operational Aden April light cruisers HMAS Hobart Liverpool reinforced anti-aircraft cruiser which sailed south Convoy BS 4 28th Destroyer Flotilla comprising Kimberley and three sloops Mediterranean. On the 6th of June Azio-class minelayer Ostia used 470 mines lay eight barrages off Massawa destroyer Pantera dropped 110 mines two barrages off Assab day after. Galileo Ferraris sailed French Somaliland Djibouti Galileo Galilei Aden Galvani Gulf Oman Mecallé Port Sudan.

• 6. The Southern Advance Into Somalia

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  In January 1941 Italians decided plains Italian Somalia could not defended. 102nd Divisione Somala General Adriano Santini bande retired lower Jubba River 101st Divisione Somala General Italo Carnevali bande upper Juba better defensive terrain mountains Ethiopia. Cunningham encountered few Italians west Juba only bande colonial battalion Afmadu troops Kismayo where Juba River empties Indian Ocean. Against expected six brigades six groups native levies holding Juba Italians began Operation Canvas the 24th of January four brigade groups 11th African Division 12th African Division. Afmadu captured the 11th of February three days later port Kismayo first objective captured. North Kismayo beyond river main Italian position Jelib attacked both flanks rear the 22nd of February. Italians routed 30,000 killed captured dispersed bush. Nothing hinder British advance Mogadishu capital main port Italian Somaliland. On the 25th of February 1941 motorised 23rd Nigerian Brigade 11th African Division occupied Somali capital Mogadishu unopposed. By the 17th of March 11th African Division completed 17-day dash along Imperial Road Mogadishu Jijiga Somali Region Ethiopia.

• 7. Final Surrenders At Gondar

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  After fall Keren Aosta retreated Amba Alagi mountain tunnelled strong points artillery positions stores inside ring similarly fortified peaks. British troops advancing south captured Addis Ababa the 6th of April Wavell imposed policy avoiding big operations Eritrea northern Ethiopia impede withdrawal troops Egypt. Remaining Italian troops no threat Sudan Eritrea could trouble British hold AOI. 1st South African Division needed Egypt Cunningham ordered send north capture main road Massawa Port Sudan ports used embarkation. Amba Alagi obstructed road north 5th Indian Division advanced southwards South Africans moved north pincer movement. Main attack 5th Indian Division began the 4th of May made slow progress. On the 10th of May 1st South African Brigade arrived completed encirclement mountain. Indian division attacked again the 13th of May South Africans attacking next day forcing Italians out several defensive positions. Concerned care wounded rumours atrocities committed Arbegnoch Aosta offered surrender provided Italians granted honours war. On the 19th of May Aosta and troops marched past guard honour into captivity. Last stand Italian forces at Amba Alagi final surrender Gondar ended organized resistance November 1941 except small groups fought guerrilla war Ethiopia until Armistice Cassibile September 1943.