Demosthenes
In 384 BC, a child named Demosthenes was born in the deme of Paeania. His father, also named Demosthenes, was a wealthy sword-maker who provided well for his family. The boy lost both parents by age seven and became an orphan under the care of three guardians: Aphobus, Demophon, and Therippides. These men mishandled his inheritance, leaving him with only a house, fourteen slaves, and thirty silver talents instead of nearly fourteen talents worth of property. At twenty years old, he sued them to recover what was owed to him. He delivered five speeches during these trials between 363 and 361 BC. The courts fixed his damages at ten talents, yet he recovered only a portion of his patrimony.
His struggle began earlier when he discovered he had a speech impairment described as rhotacism. This condition caused him to mispronounce the letter R as L, resulting in a perplexed and indistinct utterance that obscured the meaning of his words. Plutarch records that he built an underground study where he practiced speaking while shaving one half of his head so he could not go out in public. He spoke with pebbles in his mouth to strengthen his voice and recited verses while running or out of breath. He also practiced speaking in front of a large mirror to perfect his gestures. An old man named Eunomus encouraged him after his first failure, saying his diction resembled that of Pericles. Another time, an actor named Satyrus followed him home and offered friendly advice.
To make his living, Demosthenes became a professional logographer writing speeches for private legal suits. He adapted his skills to almost any client, including wealthy and powerful men who needed representation in court. Athenian juries were huge, typically between 201 and 501 members, and cases depended largely on questions of probable motive rather than written law. Witnesses and documents were mistrusted since they could be secured by force or bribery. There was little cross-examination during trials, and no instructions came from judges before voting.
In 348 BC, a peculiar event occurred when Meidias, a wealthy Athenian, publicly slapped Demosthenes at the Greater Dionysia festival. Meidias was an old enemy who had broken violently into Demosthenes's house years earlier with his brother Thrasylochus. The orator decided to prosecute this opponent and wrote the judicial oration Against Meidias. This speech gave valuable information about Athenian law regarding hybris, which was regarded as a crime against society as a whole. He stated that a democratic state perishes if the rule of law is undermined by wealthy and unscrupulous men. Scholars debate whether he actually delivered this speech or if Aeschines bribed him to drop charges, but the text remains a key document for understanding Greek concepts of aggravated assault.
Most of Demosthenes's major orations targeted King Philip II of Macedon, whose power grew after seizing Amphipolis in 357 BC. Athens had been formally at war with the Macedonians since then. In 352 BC, Demosthenes characterized Philip as the very worst enemy of his city. His speeches presaged fierce attacks launched over the ensuing years. He warned that dismissing Philip as a person of no account was dangerous because he was as threatening as the king of Persia.
In 349 BC, Philip attacked Olynthus, an ally of Athens. Demosthenes criticized his compatriots for being idle in the three Olynthiacs speeches and urged Athens to help Olynthus. He insulted Philip by calling him a barbarian despite strong advocacy, the Athenians failed to prevent the falling of the city. Almost simultaneously, they engaged in a war in Euboea against Philip which ended in a stalemate. By 341 BC, all of his speeches referred to the same issue: the struggle against Philip. He demanded resolute action and told them it would be better to die a thousand times than pay court to Philip.
Philip made his last bid to conquer southern Greece during the winter of 339, 338 BC. He passed through Thermopylae, entered Amfissa, and defeated the Locrians. After this victory, Philip swiftly entered Phocis in 338 BC and seized Elateia. Athens orchestrated an alliance with Euboea, Megara, Achaea, Corinth, Acarnania, and other states in the Peloponnese. The most desirable ally was Thebes, so Demosthenes was sent to secure their allegiance. Philip also sent a deputation, but Demosthenes succeeded in winning Theban support.
After trivial encounters resulting in minor Athenian victories, Philip drew the phalanx of the Athenian and Theban confederates into a plain near Chaeronea where he defeated them. Demosthenes fought as a mere hoplite. Diodorus Siculus records that Philip sneered at the misfortunes of the Athenian statesman after his victory. However, the orator Demades remarked that when Fortune cast Philip in the role of Agamemnon, he should not act the part of Thersites. Stung by these words, Philip immediately altered his demeanour.
In 324 BC, Harpalus absconded from Alexander's treasury and sought refuge in Athens. The Assembly initially refused to accept him following advice from Demosthenes and Phocion, but Harpalus eventually entered the city. He was imprisoned after a proposal of Demosthenes and Phocion despite dissent from Hypereides. The ekklesia decided to take control of Harpalus's money which was entrusted to a committee presided over by Demosthenes. When the committee counted the treasure, they found only half the amount Harpalus had declared possessed.
When Harpalus escaped, the Areopagus conducted an inquiry and charged Demosthenes with mishandling twenty talents. Among the accused, Demosthenes was first brought to trial before an unusually numerous jury of 1,500. He was found guilty and fined 50 talents. Unable to pay this huge amount, Demosthenes escaped and returned nine months later after Alexander's death. Upon return, he received an enthusiastic welcome never accorded to any returning exile since Alkibiades. Mogens Hansen notes that many Athenian leaders made fortunes through political activism and bribery, suggesting Demosthenes likely accepted a huge bribe from Harpalus.
In his initial judicial orations, the influence of both Lysias and Isaeus is obvious, but his marked original style is already revealed. Dionysius of Halicarnassus asserted that Demosthenes represented the final stage in the development of Attic prose. Cicero claimed that occasionally Demosthenes nodded, yet argued that although pre-eminent, he sometimes failed to satisfy ears. The main criticism rested on his known reluctance to speak; he often declined to comment on subjects he had not studied beforehand.
Cicero admired other aspects such as good prose rhythm and how he structured material. Demosthenes regarded delivery as more important than style. Although he lacked Aeschines's charming voice and Demades's skill at improvisation, he made efficient use of his body to accentuate words. His language was simple and natural, never far-fetched or artificial. He tailored his style to be very audience-specific and took pride in not relying on attractive words but rather simple effective prose. One of his most effective skills was striking a balance where works were complex enough not to offend elementary listeners while important parts remained clear and easily understood.
After Alexander's death in 323 BC, Demosthenes urged Athenians to seek independence from Macedon in what became known as the Lamian War. Antipater quelled all opposition and demanded that Athenians turn over Demosthenes and Hypereides among others. Following this order, the ekklesia reluctantly adopted a decree condemning prominent anti-Macedonian agitators to death. Demosthenes escaped to a sanctuary on the island of Kalaureia where Archias discovered him.
He died by suicide before capture by taking poison out of a reed, pretending he wanted to write a letter to his family. When the poison worked on his body, he told Archias: Now you may commence the part of Creon in the tragedy and cast out this body unburied. O gracious Neptune, I arise up and depart out of this sacred place though Antipater and Macedonians have not left so much as the temple unpolluted. After saying these words, he passed by the altar, fell down and died. Years later, Athenians erected a statue to honour him and decreed state meals for his descendants in the Prytaneum.
Demosthenes is widely considered one of the greatest orators of all time, and his fame has continued down the ages. Longinus and Caecilius regarded his oratory as sublime at Rome. Juvenal acclaimed him as a large and overflowing fountain of genius. Cicero's speeches against Mark Antony were inspired by Demosthenes. Plutarch drew attention to strong similarities between personalities and careers of Demosthenes and Marcus Tullius Cicero.
During Middle Ages and Renaissance, Demosthenes had reputation for eloquence. He was read more than any other ancient orator; only Cicero offered real competition. French author Guillaume du Vair praised speeches for artful arrangement and elegant style. Thomas Wilson published translation into English calling him authoritative statesman and source of wisdom. In modern history, Henry Clay mimicked technique while ideas influenced authors of The Federalist Papers and major orators of French Revolution. Friedrich Nietzsche composed sentences according to paradigms of Demosthenes whose style he admired. Sixty-one orations attributed to Demosthenes survived till present day though some are pseudonymous.
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Common questions
When was Demosthenes born and where did he grow up?
Demosthenes was born in 384 BC in the deme of Paeania. He grew up as an orphan under the care of three guardians named Aphobus, Demophon, and Therippides after losing both parents by age seven.
What speech impairment did Demosthenes overcome to become a great orator?
Demosthenes suffered from rhotacism which caused him to mispronounce the letter R as L and produce indistinct utterances. He overcame this condition through rigorous practice including speaking with pebbles in his mouth and shaving one half of his head while practicing in an underground study.
Why did Demosthenes fight against King Philip II of Macedon?
Demosthenes fought against King Philip II because Philip seized Amphipolis in 357 BC and threatened Athens with military aggression. The orator warned that dismissing Philip as unimportant was dangerous since he posed a threat comparable to the king of Persia.
How did Demosthenes die and on what date did his death occur?
Demosthenes died by suicide in 322 BC after taking poison out of a reed to avoid capture by Archias. His death occurred following the Lamian War when Antipater demanded Athenians turn over anti-Macedonian agitators for execution.
Which ancient authors praised Demosthenes for his oratory skills?
Ancient authors such as Cicero, Plutarch, Longinus, Caecilius, Juvenal, and Thomas Wilson praised Demosthenes for his eloquence and style. Cicero claimed Demosthenes represented the final stage in Attic prose development while others regarded his work as sublime or a fountain of genius.