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Confederate States of America | HearLore
— Ch. 1 · Origins And Secession —
Confederate States of America.
~11 min read · Ch. 1 of 7
On the 20th of December 1860, South Carolina became the first state to vote for secession from the United States. This single act triggered a chain reaction that would see seven other states follow suit before Abraham Lincoln even took office in March 1861. The new nation formed by these states called itself the Confederate States of America and adopted its constitution on the 8th of February 1861. Historians widely agree that preserving slavery was the principal aim of this breakaway republic. Cotton-based economies across the Deep South depended entirely on enslaved labor to function. Fear of abolition intensified among Southern whites as anti-slavery sentiment grew in the North. Political disputes over whether slavery could spread into Western territories had defined American politics for decades. Congress once admitted new states in pairs to maintain balance between slave and free states. By the mid-19th century, the status of new territories had become a defining political issue. Anti-slavery sentiment was growing rapidly in Northern states while fear of abolition intensified in the South. Another contributing factor was the rise of distinctly white Southern nationalism in preceding decades. Proponents of the Lost Cause interpretation deny that slavery was the primary cause of secession. This viewpoint contradicts overwhelming historical evidence including the actual secession documents written by the states themselves. A central political dispute concerned whether slavery would be permitted to spread into Western territories destined to become states. Initially Congress admitted new states in pairs one slave and one free to preserve sectional balance in the Senate. Free states tended to have larger electorates so they held more power in the House of Representatives. The primary reason the North rejected secession was a commitment to preserving the Union itself. Northern nationalists and Southern Unionists refused to recognize declarations made by the seven Deep South states. No foreign government ever officially recognized the Confederacy during its four-year existence.
Government And Capitals
The provisional Confederate capital was established in Montgomery Alabama on the 4th of February 1861 when delegates from seven states gathered there. Jefferson Davis issued a call for 100,000 men from state militias to defend the newly formed nation. All federal property was seized including gold bullion and coining dies at U.S. mints throughout the South. The capital moved from Montgomery to Richmond Virginia in May 1861 after four Upper South states declared secession following Lincoln's call for troops. On the 22nd of February 1862 Davis was inaugurated as president with a six-year term under the permanent constitution. The administration pursued national territorial integrity continuing earlier efforts to remove U.S. government presence from Southern soil. This included taking possession of courts custom houses post offices and most notably arsenals and forts across the region. After the attack on Fort Sumter in April 1861 Lincoln called up 75,000 militiamen to re-occupy U.S. properties. The resistance at Fort Sumter signaled his change of policy from that of the Buchanan Administration. The people of both North and South demanded war with soldiers rushing to their colors in hundreds of thousands. The Confederate capital provided for in the constitution called for a state cession of a 100 square mile district to the central government. Atlanta put in a bid noting its central location and rail connections while Opelika Alabama noted its strategically interior situation. Richmond Virginia was chosen for the interim capital at the Virginia State Capitol because it had rail connections south along the east coast. It also had laterally west into Tennessee parallel the U.S. border and a navigable river to Hampton Roads. The city served as a great storehouse of supplies food feed raw materials ports drydocks armories and the Tredegar Iron Works. As war dragged on Richmond became crowded with training transfers logistics and hospitals where prices rose dramatically despite regulation attempts. A movement in Congress argued for moving the capital from Richmond as federal armies approached mid-1862. Davis fled to Danville Virginia which served as headquarters for eight days before the end of the war.
Diplomatic Efforts Abroad
The Confederacy sent James M. Mason to London and John Slidell to Paris hoping to secure foreign recognition during 1861. Their ship the Trent was intercepted by the U.S. Navy and taken to Boston in an international episode known as the Trent Affair. The diplomats were eventually released but their mission failed to achieve diplomatic recognition or military assistance from European powers. Historians judge their diplomacy as poor since neither secured formal recognition for the Confederate States. The belief that cotton was king proved mistaken because Britain had stocks lasting over a year and developed alternative sources. By 1833 the Royal Navy patrolled Middle Passage waters to prevent slave ships from reaching the Western Hemisphere. Black abolitionist speakers toured England Scotland and Ireland exposing the reality of American chattel slavery. Frederick Douglass Henry Highland Garnet Sarah Parker Remond and others spent years in Britain where fugitive slaves found safety. Most British public opinion was against slavery with Liverpool seen as the primary base of Southern support. Lord John Russell Emperor Napoleon III of France and Prime Minister Lord Palmerston showed interest in recognition early in the war. Chancellor William Gladstone attempted unsuccessfully to convince Palmerston to intervene before September 1862. Union victory at Antietam Lincoln's preliminary Emancipation Proclamation and abolitionist opposition in Britain ended these possibilities. The cost to Britain of war would have been high including loss of grain shipments and seizure of billions invested in securities. In mid-1862 fears of a race war like the Haitian Revolution led Britain to consider intervention for humanitarian reasons. John Slidell succeeded in negotiating a loan of $15,000,000 from French capitalists for ironclad warships and military supplies. The British government allowed construction of blockade runners though most were owned by British financiers and shipowners. European nations maintained diplomats in place who had been appointed to the U.S. but no country appointed any diplomat to the Confederacy. Those nations recognized both sides as belligerents without granting formal political status. In 1863 the Confederacy expelled European diplomatic missions for advising their resident subjects to refuse service in Confederate armies.
Military Strategy And Warfare
The American Civil War broke out in April 1861 with a Confederate victory at Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor. General Beauregard forced its surrender on April 12 after Confederate artillery drove away the steamship Star of the West. Following Sumter Lincoln directed states to provide 75,000 militiamen to recapture Charleston Harbor forts and all other federal property. This emboldened secessionists in Virginia Arkansas Tennessee and North Carolina to secede rather than provide troops to march into neighboring Southern states. Federal troops crossed into Confederate territory along the entire border from Chesapeake Bay to New Mexico in May 1861. The first battles included Confederate victories at Big Bethel First Bull Run and Wilson's Creek where forces could not follow up due to inadequate supply. Union General George B. McClellan gained possession of much northwestern Virginia concentrating on towns and roads while interior became center of guerrilla activity. Robert E. Lee was defeated at Cheat Mountain in September and no serious advance occurred until the next year. The Union Navy seized control of much coastline from Virginia to South Carolina taking over plantations and abandoned slaves. Federals began a war-long policy of burning grain supplies up rivers into interior wherever they could not occupy. The Federal strategy aimed to secure Mississippi River seize or close ports and march on Richmond by early 1862. To restore independence Confederates intended to repel invaders on all fronts costing blood and treasure while carrying war into North. Most of northwestern Virginia remained under Federal control with 22 of 48 counties sufficient for soldier recruitment by August 1862. In February and March most Missouri and Kentucky were Union occupied consolidated and used as staging areas for advances further South. Central Tennessee Fort Henry was lost and Fort Donelson fell with small army ending Nashville as first conquered capital by month end. On April 6-7 Federals turned back Confederate offensive at Shiloh while three days later Island Number 10 controlling upper Mississippi fell. New Orleans captured April 29 by Admiral David Farragut meant loss of mouth of Mississippi River and extensive agricultural resources. As of end of April 1862 Confederacy still controlled territory holding 72% of its population despite major reverses everywhere.
Conscription And Manpower
The Confederate Congress passed the first American law of national conscription on the 16th of April 1862 declaring white males aged 18 to 35 members of the army for three years. All men then enlisted were extended to a three-year term serving only in units and under officers of their state. Those under 18 and over 35 could substitute for conscripts while those from 35 to 45 became conscripts in September. Military officers including Joseph E. Johnston and Robert E. Lee advocated conscription persuading Congressmen and newspaper editors initially. Some editors advocating conscription in early 1862 later became savage critics of Davis for enforcing it. The cry of rich man's war and poor man's fight led Congress to abolish substitute system altogether in December 1863. All principals benefiting earlier were made eligible for service while age bracket expanded to 17 to 50 by February 1864. The First Conscription Act exempted occupations related to transportation communication industry ministers teaching and physical fitness. Rich men's sons appointed to socially outcast overseer occupation received universal odium through Twenty Negro Law exempting one white overseer per plantation with 20 slaves. Backpedaling six months later Congress provided overseers under 45 could be exempted only if holding occupation before first Conscription Act. Number of officials under state exemptions appointed by Governor patronage expanded significantly throughout the conflict. The Conscription Act of February 1864 radically changed selection system abolishing industrial exemptions placing detail authority in President Davis. As shame greater than felony conviction system brought about as many volunteers as it did conscripts totaling nearly 160,000 additional men. Nearly 3,000 officers tasked job administering draft using state officers though Governors would allow checkered career of contention opposition futility. By late 1864 Lee called for more troops stating ranks constantly diminishing by battle disease few recruits received inevitable consequences followed. By March 1865 conscription administered by generals calling out men over 45 and under 18 years old all exemptions abolished. These regiments assigned recruit conscripts ages 17-50 recover deserters repel enemy cavalry raids retaining men who lost but one arm or leg home guards.
Societal Impact And Dissent
The survival of Confederacy depended on strong base of civilians and soldiers devoted to victory despite increasing numbers deserted last year fighting. Soldiers performed well though Confederacy never succeeded replacing casualties as Union could while civilians lost faith future by 1864 looking protect homes communities instead. George C. Rable explains contraction civic vision represented increasingly widespread disillusionment with Confederate experiment beyond crabbed libertarianism. Voting to remain Union did not necessarily mean individuals sympathizers with North once fighting began many accepted majority decision supporting Confederacy. In Virginia populous counties along Ohio Pennsylvania borders rejected Confederacy while Unionists held Convention Wheeling June 1861 establishing restored government rump legislature. Sentiment region remained deeply divided with voters from 24 counties voting disunion in May 23 referendum making 50 counties state West Virginia. Counties simultaneously supplied over 20,000 soldiers each side conflict proving no other state serves better example than West Virginia relatively equal support northern southern causes. Representatives most counties seated both state legislatures Wheeling Richmond duration war while attempts secede counties East Tennessee checked martial law. Slaveholding Delaware Maryland citizens exhibited divided loyalties with 24,000 men from Maryland joining Confederate forces compared 63,000 who joined Union forces. Delaware never produced full regiment Confederacy neither emancipate slaves Missouri West Virginia District Columbia citizens made no attempts secede through war referendums approved compensated emancipation slave confiscation disloyal citizens. Kentucky declared neutrality but after Confederate troops moved state legislature asked Union troops drive them out delegates 68 counties sent Russellville Convention signed Ordinance Secession the 10th of December 1861 Bowling Green first capital. Early war Confederacy controlled more than half Kentucky largely lost control 1862 splinter government relocated accompany western armies never controlled state population after 1862. By end war 90,000 Kentuckians fought Union compared 35,000 for Confederacy while Missouri constitutional convention rejected secession 89-1 the 19th of March 1861.
Collapse And Legacy
By 1865 Confederacy federal government dissolved into chaos Confederate States Congress adjourned effectively ceasing existence legislative body March 18. After four years heavy fighting most Confederate land naval forces surrendered otherwise ceased hostilities by May 1865. Most significant capitulation Confederate general Robert E. Lee surrender April 9 extinguished any doubt war outcome Confederacy survival. Davis and most cabinet fled Danville Virginia serving headquarters eight days before final collapse of Confederate administration. The Confederate states readmitted to Congress each ratified Thirteenth Amendment U.S. Constitution outlawing slavery except punishment crime during Reconstruction era. Lost Cause mythology emerged decades after war among former Confederate generals politicians organizations United Daughters Confederacy Ladies Memorial Associations Sons Confederate Veterans. Intense periods Lost Cause activity developed turn 20th century civil rights movement 1950s 1960s reaction growing support racial equality. Advocates sought ensure future generations Southern whites continued support white supremacist policies Jim Crow laws activities building Confederate monuments influencing textbook authors. Modern display Confederate battle flag primarily started 1948 presidential election used pro-segregationist white supremacist Dixiecrat Party. European leaders saw Confederacy verge defeat December 1864 when Davis considered sacrificing slavery enlist recognition aid Paris London secretly sent Duncan F. Kenner Europe message war fought solely vindication rights self-government independence no sacrifice too great save honor. If French British governments made recognition conditional anything all Confederacy consent terms though European leaders saw Confederacy verge defeat. Brazil represented peoples most identical institutions slavery remained legal until 1880s abolitionist movement small Confederate ships welcome Brazilian ports. After war Brazil primary destination Southerners wanted continue living slave society where one immigrant remarked Confederado slaves cheap Captain-General Cuba declared writing Confederate ships welcome protected Cuban ports.
When did South Carolina vote for secession from the United States?
South Carolina became the first state to vote for secession on the 20th of December 1860. This act triggered a chain reaction that saw seven other states follow suit before Abraham Lincoln took office in March 1861.
What was the principal aim of the Confederate States of America according to historians?
Historians widely agree that preserving slavery was the principal aim of this breakaway republic. Cotton-based economies across the Deep South depended entirely on enslaved labor to function and anti-slavery sentiment grew rapidly in Northern states.
Where was the provisional capital of the Confederate States of America established?
The provisional Confederate capital was established in Montgomery Alabama on the 4th of February 1861 when delegates from seven states gathered there. The capital moved from Montgomery to Richmond Virginia in May 1861 after four Upper South states declared secession following Lincoln's call for troops.
Did any foreign government officially recognize the Confederate States of America during its existence?
No foreign government ever officially recognized the Confederacy during its four-year existence. European nations maintained diplomats in place who had been appointed to the U.S. but no country appointed any diplomat to the Confederacy.
When did Robert E Lee surrender ending the American Civil War?
Confederate general Robert E Lee surrendered on the 9th of April 1865 which extinguished any doubt regarding the war outcome. Most Confederate land naval forces surrendered or ceased hostilities by May 1865 after four years of heavy fighting.