Chandrayaan programme

• 1. Origins And Early Planning

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  In 1999, a meeting of the Indian Academy of Sciences raised the idea of a lunar scientific mission. This proposal moved forward to the Astronautical Society of India in 2000. A National Lunar Mission Task Force formed shortly after these proposals. The group included ISRO and leading scientists from across the nation. They conducted a feasibility study for the project. Their report recommended that ISRO should proceed with the Moon Mission. Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee announced the project on the 15th of August 2003. The initial cost estimate was set at 580 crore rupees. Government approval followed in November of that same year. President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam visited the ISRO office during orbiter assembly. He advised that an orbiter alone would not suffice. He proposed adding another instrument to drop onto the surface. Scientists made design changes to include the Moon Impact Probe. This probe planned to acquire close-range images and measure lunar atmosphere constituents.

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• 2. Chandrayaan One Successes

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  On the 22nd of October 2008, Chandrayaan-1 launched aboard a PSLV rocket. It entered lunar orbit on the 10th of November 2008. Four days later, the Moon Impact Probe hit near Shackleton crater. This event made India the fifth country to reach the lunar surface. The probe detected water molecules using its Chandra's Altitudinal Composition Explorer instrument. NASA confirmed this discovery via their Moon Mineralogy Mapper payload on the 24th of September 2009. The mission intended to last two years but contact was lost on the 28th of August 2009. An overheating issue damaged star sensors which maintained craft orientation. Despite losing contact early, the mission achieved 95% success with its operations. Data from instruments remained useful even a decade later. Dr. Shuai Li used M3 data in 2018 to research lunar water in dark craters. His team found convincing evidence of true water ice at the uppermost surface of the Moon.

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• 3. The Chandrayaan Two Failure

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  Russia delayed development of the lander due to technical issues in similar parts. ISRO had to undertake the entire project independently after the Russian agreement fell apart. A test flight faced delays as scientists added a fifth engine and increased landing leg diameter. On the 6th of September 2019, contact with the Vikram lander was lost during descent. It crash-landed just above the surface. Chairman K. Sivan stated the lander deviated from its trajectory near 2.1 kilometers altitude. Four years later, chairman S. Somanath revealed three major reasons for the failure. Five engines generated higher thrust causing errors to accumulate over time. The lander could not turn fast enough because it lacked high pace turning capability. The chosen 500 by 500 meter landing site left too little room for error. The total cost reached approximately 978 crore rupees. This failure prompted India to develop indigenous technology without foreign reliance.

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• 4. Historic South Pole Landing

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  Chandrayaan-3 launched on the 14th of July 2023 aboard an LVM3 rocket. The lander named Vikram successfully soft landed on the 23rd of August 2023. This achievement made India the fourth country to soft land on the Moon. It also marked humanity's first soft landing in the lunar south pole region. The Pragyan rover rolled down the ramp shortly after touchdown. It drove across the surface to achieve primary mission goals. A hop experiment conducted on the 3rd of September 2023 moved the lander vertically and laterally before touching down again. This test proved significant for future sample return missions. The landing area expanded to 2.6 square kilometers from the previous 500 by 500 meters. The region selected was near Statio Shiv Shakti. The rover operated until lunar night approached on the 3rd of September 2023 when it entered sleep mode.

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• 5. Spacecraft Engineering Evolution

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  The Chandrayaan-2 lander carried five liquid main engines derived from ISRO's liquid apogee motors. These engines generated higher thrust than normal which led to accumulation of errors during descent. The attitude correction rate stood at 10 degrees per second. In contrast, the Chandrayaan-3 lander used four engines providing 2000 Newtons of thrust. Its slew rate changed capabilities allowed control over all phases of descent. The attitude correction rate increased to 25 degrees per second. An additional laser Doppler velocimeter equipped the new lander for three-directional measurements. Impact legs became larger and stronger relative to the predecessor. Multiple contingency systems improved survivability chances during failure events. Fuel capacity increased significantly while vertical velocity components were adjusted. Software changes addressed issues found in the previous mission design.

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• 6. Scientific Discoveries And Data

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  Chandrayaan-1 detected water molecules with atomic mass unit 18 using its ChACE instrument. This detection occurred as the probe descended toward the surface on the 12th of November 2008. The Moon Mineralogy Mapper observed absorption features of water ice between 1.0 and 2.5 micrometers wavelength. A large lava tube measured about 4 kilometers in length near Oceanus Procellarum. This feature acts as a natural protector from cosmic radiation and meteorites. The Terrain Mapping Camera captured over 70,000 images during 3,000 orbits around the Moon. Spatial resolution reached 5 meters allowing detailed mapping of the lunar surface. The Chandrayaan-2 orbiter continues operations until 2026 with an extended duration of seven and a half years. It carries forward research from the orbit using advanced cameras like OHRC. These instruments study lava tubes and caves previously spotted by earlier missions.

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• 7. Future Missions And Collaboration

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  The Lunar Polar Exploration Mission named LUPEX targets launch between 2028 and 2029. India collaborates with Japan's JAXA for this lander-rover mission. Government approval for Chandrayaan-5 came on the 14th of March 2025. Planned sample return mission Chandrayaan-4 consists of four modules including Transfer and Lander sections. Its landing site lies near Statio Shiv Shakti where Chandrayaan-3 touched down. Future missions from Chandrayaan-6 focus on developing critical infrastructure for human lunar landings. ISRO chairman S. Somanath confirmed plans to send robotic explorers until indigenous crewed missions begin. A crewed lunar flyby mission named Chandrayaan-H1 is scheduled for 2038-39. Another uncrewed demonstration called Chandrayaan-7 aims for 2036-37. The program continues sending robotic lunar explorers even after crewed landings occur.

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