Bismuth
Bismuth, the element with atomic number 83 and the symbol Bi, spent generations holding a title it did not deserve. Chemists treated it as the heaviest element whose atoms never come apart. Theory suggested otherwise. In 2003, researchers at a laboratory in Orsay, France, finally caught its only primordial isotope, bismuth-209, in the act of alpha decay. The wait for that event is almost absurd. The half-life is roughly a billion times longer than the estimated age of the universe. For every medical and industrial purpose, bismuth can still be treated as stable. The discovery matters for a different reason. Bismuth is one of a few elements whose radioactivity was predicted on paper long before any instrument could detect it. That pattern of quiet surprise runs through the whole metal. Why does a brittle metal keep turning up in medicine cabinets, paint tubes and fire sprinklers?
A freshly produced piece of bismuth is silvery white, but the color rarely lasts. Air gives the surface a rosy cast, and heating the metal while it oxidizes can turn it vividly iridescent. The oxide skin varies in thickness from spot to spot. Each thickness sends different wavelengths of light back to the eye, so the surface shows a rainbow running from yellow to blue.
High-purity bismuth can also grow hopper crystals, spiral staircases of color that almost never form in nature. The metal melts at just above 271 degrees Celsius and is relatively nontoxic. A hobbyist can therefore grow crystals on a household stove, though they come out poorer than laboratory ones. The staircase shape comes from uneven growth. The outer edges of a crystal grow faster than the inner ones.
Fourth place on the list of electrically resistive pure metals belongs to bismuth, behind gadolinium, manganese and plutonium. Only manganese, neptunium and plutonium conduct heat worse. No other metal is verified to be more naturally diamagnetic, and none has a higher Hall coefficient. Spread into a sufficiently thin layer on a substrate, bismuth even behaves as a semiconductor, although it is a post-transition metal.
At 2.55 GPa, compressed bismuth abandons its usual layered rhombohedral lattice for a monoclinic one. At 2.7 GPa it becomes tetragonal, and at 7.7 GPa it settles into a body-centered cubic form. These jumps are abrupt and repeatable. Laboratories use them to calibrate high-pressure equipment.
Then there is the figure of 3.32 percent. Bismuth expands by that amount as it solidifies, which makes the liquid denser than the solid. Water, silicon, germanium, gallium and plutonium behave the same way. Printers exploited the quirk in type metal, where bismuth offset the shrinking of the other ingredients.
Bismuth ranks among the first 11 metals ever discovered, and nobody can be named as the person who found it. It has been known since ancient times. That long familiarity did not help much, because its look and behavior so closely resembled lead and tin that people kept confusing the three.
The Incas knew the metal and put it to work. They added bismuth to the usual copper and tin to make a special bronze for knives. Examples turned up at Machu Picchu.
Miners in the age of alchemy had their own idea about it. They called it tectum argenti, meaning silver being made. In their view it was silver still forming inside the Earth.
The word bismuth dates to around 1665, and its origin remains uncertain. It may trace to the German Wismuth, which could come from weiße Masse, meaning white mass. A link to the Old High German hwiz, meaning white, is also possible. Georgius Agricola, who Latinized many German mining words, turned it into bisemutium.
Agricola made a sharper point in 1546. Judging by the physical properties of the metals, he stated that bismuth is a distinct metal belonging to a family that includes tin and lead. Johann Heinrich Pott, Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Torbern Olof Bergman, beginning with Pott in 1738, made the separation between lead and bismuth clear. Claude François Geoffroy then demonstrated in 1753 that it differs from both lead and tin.
In 1884, doctors began treating congenital syphilis with bismuth salts. Between 1921 and 1924 the treatment spread to the general population. Salts such as sodium bismuth tartrate were injected into muscle. They offered a less toxic alternative, or a supplement, to arsenic-based therapies such as Salvarsan. Bismuth remained a standard treatment until 1943, when penicillin replaced heavy-metal protocols. Even so, some regions kept using it. In France it persisted for certain stages of the disease until at least the late 1970s.
Early in the 20th century, a product called milk of bismuth was sold as a cure-all for the digestive tract. It was a water suspension of bismuth hydroxide and bismuth subcarbonate.
The best-known bismuth medicine today is bismuth subsalicylate. It is the active ingredient in pink preparations such as Pepto-Bismol, and in the 2004 reformulation of Kaopectate. It treats diarrhea, and it is also used against shigellosis and cadmium poisoning. How it works is still not well documented. An oligodynamic effect, meaning the toxic effect of tiny doses of heavy metal ions on microbes, may play a part. Salicylic acid released as the compound breaks down is also antimicrobial against the toxigenic E. coli behind traveler's diarrhea.
Other bismuth compounds fill smaller roles. Bismuth subsalicylate combined with bismuth subcitrate treats the bacteria that cause peptic ulcers. Bibrocathol treats eye infections. Bismuth subgallate, the active ingredient in Devrom, works as an internal deodorant against the odor of flatulence and feces.
In 1997, a different bismuth entered medicine. An antibody carrying bismuth-213 was used to treat leukemia patients, and it has since been tried against other cancers in a targeted alpha therapy program. This isotope emits alpha particles and has a half-life of only 45.6 minutes. Its parent, actinium-225, can be made by bombarding radium with photons from a linear particle accelerator.
Ancient Egypt already wore bismuth oxychloride as a cosmetic, and people have used it in many places since. Its crystals are built of atomic layers that bend light into changing colors, much like the nacre of a pearl. Found in nature as the mineral bismoclite, it now colors eye shadow, hair spray and nail polish.
Bismuth white, also called Spanish white, is a name given to either bismuth oxychloride or bismuth oxynitrate when used as a white pigment.
The yellow story is newer. Bismuth vanadate is a light-stable, nonreactive pigment, especially valued in artists' paints. It often replaces the more toxic cadmium sulfide yellows and orange-yellows. The most common variety in artists' paints is a lemon yellow that looks the same as its cadmium rival. It also stands in for older chromate pigments made with zinc, lead and strontium.
Against lead chromate, bismuth vanadate has a clear edge. Hydrogen sulfide in the air blackens lead chromate, and ultraviolet light speeds that process. Bismuth vanadate does not blacken, and its color is brighter. Its cost keeps it to a limited role as a vehicle paint pigment.
Pyrotechnics found a use as well. The oxide, subcarbonate or subnitrate of bismuth goes into crackling microstars, the sparkling charges known as dragon's eggs.
Lead and antimony sit beside bismuth on the periodic table, and both are far more toxic. Bismuth salts dissolve poorly, which probably explains why they are gentler when swallowed. The whole-body biological half-life is reported as 5 days. In people treated with bismuth compounds, though, it can stay in the kidney for years.
Poisoning still happens, and some reports call it common in relatively recent times. As with lead, it can leave a black deposit on the gums called a bismuth line. Dimercaprol may be used for treatment, but evidence of benefit is unclear. A rare skin condition called bismuthia can follow prolonged use. The metal's effect on the environment is not well known, although it may be less likely than other heavy metals to accumulate in living things.
That low toxicity drives its modern career. Lead has a density figure of 11.32 and bismuth has 9.78, close enough for many weighting jobs. Bismuth stands in for lead in fishing sinkers, shot, bullets and less lethal riot gun ammunition. The Netherlands, Denmark, England, Wales, the United States and many other countries ban lead shot for hunting wetland birds, which swallow it in place of grit. The Netherlands bans lead for all hunting. Bismuth-tin alloy shot gives ballistic performance similar to lead. Today, around a third of global bismuth production serves needs once met by lead.
Medical imaging uses it too. Latex impregnated with bismuth shields patients from X-rays during examinations such as CT scans, largely because the element is considered nontoxic.
The European Union's Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive widened its use in electronics as a low-melting solder in place of tin-lead solders. Low toxicity matters most for solder in food-processing equipment and copper water pipes. In plumbing brasses, bismuth was tried as a lead substitute but does not match the performance of leaded steels.
Many automatic sprinklers, electric fuses and fire safety devices contain a bismuth eutectic alloy that melts at 47 degrees Celsius. That is a convenient point, since normal living conditions are unlikely to reach it. Wood's metal, which combines bismuth, lead, tin and cadmium, serves in sprinkler systems. Bismuth makes up 50 percent of Rose's metal, alongside 25-28 percent lead and 22-25 percent tin.
An alloy of bismuth, cadmium, lead and tin melts at 70 degrees Celsius and is used in the automotive and aviation industries. Before a thin-walled metal part is bent, it is filled with the melt to reduce the chance of breaking. Boiling water then removes the alloy.
Machinists value the metal as well. Bismuth goes into free-machining steels and aluminium alloys because it helps chips break cleanly during cutting. Alloys with comparable parts of bismuth and lead change by only about 0.01 percent as they melt, solidify or age. Dentistry uses such alloys for high-precision casting of models and molds.
Estimates of bismuth in the Earth's crust differ widely by source. The low figure is 8 parts per billion, which would make it twice as common as gold. The high figure is 180 parts per billion, similar to silver. The most important ores are bismuthinite and bismite, and native bismuth is known from Australia, Bolivia and China.
For 2016, the United States Geological Survey reported 10,200 tonnes mined worldwide and 17,100 tonnes refined. It has since stopped publishing mining data for bismuth, judging them unreliable. Most bismuth comes from refining, as a byproduct of lead, copper, tin, molybdenum and tungsten. Crude lead bullion can carry up to 10 percent bismuth. The Kroll-Betterton process or the electrolytic Betts process pulls it out. Reacting the molten mixture with chlorine gas turns the impurities into chlorides while bismuth stays unchanged, and further treatments can reach purity above 99 percent.
The price story follows the war years. Before World War II, demand was small and mostly pharmaceutical, for digestive disorders, sexually transmitted diseases and burns. The war made bismuth a strategic material for solders, fusible alloys, medications and atomic research. Producers fixed the price at $1.25 per pound during the war and at $2.25 per pound from 1950 until 1964.
In the early 1970s, the price rose rapidly as aluminium, iron and steel makers wanted bismuth as an additive. A decline followed, caused by greater world production, steadier consumption, and the recessions of 1980 and 1981-82. Prices began to climb again in 1984, with consumption rising worldwide, especially in the United States and Japan.
In the early 1990s, researchers began testing bismuth as a nontoxic replacement for lead in ceramic glazes, fishing sinkers, food-processing equipment, plumbing brasses, lubricating greases and waterfowl shot. Growth stayed slow through the middle of that decade, even with federal backing. Demand intensified around 2005, and the price has risen rapidly since.
In the United States, 733 tonnes of bismuth were consumed in 2016. Seventy percent went into chemicals such as pharmaceuticals, pigments and cosmetics, and 11 percent into alloys. Recycling is a hard problem. Electronics once looked like a source, but newer assembly methods deposit far less solder. Recovering silver from solder may still pay, while recovering bismuth pays much less. Bismuth in stomach medicines, paints, pearlescent cosmetics and bullets is too scattered to collect.
In 1988, scientists discovered a group of superconducting compounds that includes bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide. These compounds show the highest superconducting transition temperatures known.
Bismuth telluride is a semiconductor and an excellent thermoelectric material. Its diodes appear in mobile refrigerators and CPU coolers, and as detectors in infrared spectrophotometers. Bismuth germanate serves as a scintillator in X-ray and gamma ray detectors. The delta form of bismuth oxide is a solid electrolyte for oxygen. Sintering bismuth and manganese powders at 300 degrees Celsius produces a permanent magnet that is also magnetostrictive, a material useful in ultrasonic generators and receivers, and in magnetic and holographic memory devices.
Transistors are the newest ambition. Claims have been made that bismuth-based materials could yield smaller, faster and more energy-efficient transistors than silicon. The metal has a small bandgap and high electron mobility. It also has topological insulator states, conducting along its surface or edges while insulating inside. Sodium bismuthide interests researchers as a topological Dirac insulator.
Two-dimensional bismuth materials support channel lengths below a nanometer, beyond silicon's practical limits. One study reported transistors made from bismuth oxyselenides that were 40 percent faster and 10 percent more efficient than Intel's chips. Bismuth can also reduce contact resistance with certain 2D semiconductors, removing the Schottky barrier that hampers many metal-semiconductor joins. The catch is anisotropic heat transport, which complicates chip design.
Catalysis offers more work. Bismuth molybdate catalyzes the oxidation of propylene and also acts as a photocatalyst. Bismuth tungstate removes phenolic compounds and helps generate hydrogen. Another bismuth catalyst is used in making acrylic fibers.
The most striking case is a fluorination reaction on arylboronic pinacol esters. It runs through a Bi(III)/Bi(V) catalytic cycle that imitates how transition metals behave.
Up next
Continue browsing
Updated
Common questions
Is bismuth radioactive?
Very slightly. In 2003, researchers in Orsay, France, detected alpha decay in bismuth-209. Its half-life is roughly a billion times longer than the estimated age of the universe, so it is treated as stable for medical and industrial purposes.
Why does bismuth show rainbow colors?
A thin oxide layer forms on the crystal surface. Its thickness varies, so different wavelengths of light interfere on reflection, producing colors from yellow to blue.
What medicine contains bismuth?
Bismuth subsalicylate is the active ingredient in Pepto-Bismol and the 2004 reformulation of Kaopectate. It treats diarrhea and some other gastrointestinal conditions.
Is bismuth toxic?
Its toxicity is unusually low for a heavy metal, much lower than lead or antimony. Poisoning can still occur and may leave a black bismuth line on the gums.
Why is bismuth used in place of lead?
Its density is close enough to lead for many weighting and ballistic jobs, and it is far less toxic. About a third of global production now serves needs once met by lead.
Where does bismuth come from?
Mostly from refining, as a byproduct of extracting lead, copper, tin, molybdenum and tungsten. Native bismuth is known from Australia, Bolivia and China.
All sources
108 references cited across the entry
- 1NewsBismuth breaks half-life record for alpha decayBelle Dumé — Physicsworld — 23 April 2003
- 2BookThe Disappearing Spoon (and other true tales of madness, love, and the history of the world from the Periodic Table of Elements)Sam Kean — Back Bay Books — 2011
- 3BookThe Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology1996
- 4BookChemistry of Arsenic, Antimony, and BismuthNicholas C. Norman — Springer — 1998
- 5JournalBismuth Bronze from Machu Picchu, PeruRobert B. Gordon et al. — 1984
- 6BookDe Natura FossiliumGeorgious Agricola — Mineralogical Society of America — 1955
- 7BookAmerican edition of the British encyclopedia: Or, Dictionary of Arts and sciences; comprising an accurate and popular view of the present improved state of human knowledgeWilliam Nicholson — 1819
- 8JournalThe discovery of the elements. II. Elements known to the alchemistsMary Elvira Weeks — 1932
- 9Glossary of Archaic Chemical TermsCarmen J. Giunta — Le Moyne College
- 10BookExercitationes ChymicaeJohann Heinrich Pott — Berolini: Apud Johannem Andream Rüdigerum — 1738
- 11JournalSur BismuthC.F. Geoffroy — 1753
- 12JournalThe Theory of the Galvomagnetic Effects in BismuthH. Jones — 1936
- 13BookThe Elements, in Handbook of Chemistry and PhysicsC. R. Hammond — CRC press — 2004
- 14BookLange's Handbook of ChemistryJ. A. Dean — McGraw-Hill — 1999
- 15JournalSemimetal-to-semiconductor transition in bismuth thin filmsC. Hoffman et al. — 1993
- 16BookInorganic chemistryEgon Wiberg et al. — Academic Press — 2001
- 17BookModern physical scienceGeorge R. Tracy et al. — Holt, Rinehart and Winston — 1974
- 18JournalIX.—Freezing of water and bismuthAlfred Tribe — 1868
- 19BookThe Physics of Phase TransitionsPierre Papon et al. — Springer — 2006
- 20BookThe science of crystallization: microscopic interfacial phenomenaWilliam A. Tiller — Cambridge University Press — 1991
- 21BookHigh-Pressure Crystallography: From Fundamental Phenomena to Technological ApplicationsBoldyreva, Elena — Springer — 2010
- 22BookScience and Technology of High Pressure: Proceedings of the International Conference on High Pressure Science and Technology (AIRAPT-17)Murli H. Manghnani — Universities Press (India) — 25–30 July 1999
- 23BookOrganobismuth ChemistrySuzuki, Hitomi — Elsevier — 2001
- 24BookTopics in Current chemistry 311, Bismuth-Mediated Organic ReactionsS.W. Krabbe et al. — Springer — 2012
- 25BookInorganic Reactions in Water (e-book)Ronald Rich — Springer — 2007
- 26JournalAlpha-activity of BiH. G. Carvalho et al. — 1972
- 27JournalExperimental detection of α-particles from the radioactive decay of natural bismuthPierre de Marcillac — 2003
- 28BookModern Nuclear ChemistryWalter D. Loveland et al. — John Wiley & Sons — 2006
- 29JournalOccurrence of the (4n + 1) series in natureD. F. Peppard et al. — 1952
- 30JournalAdvancements in cancer therapy with alpha-emitters: a reviewS. Imam — 2001
- 31BookIssues in Cancer Epidemiology and ResearchAshton Acton — ScholarlyEditions — 2011
- 32BookComprehensive Coordination Chemistry IILevason, W. et al. — Elsevier Pergamon — 2003
- 33BookAn Introduction to the Study of ChemistryForgotten Books
- 34BookConcise encyclopedia chemistryThomas Scott et al. — Walter de Gruyter — 1994
- 35BookAdvances in Inorganic Chemistry and RadiochemistryR. J. Gillespie et al. — Academic Press — 1975
- 36JournalHydrated metal ions in aqueous solution: How regular are their structures?Ingmar Persson — 2010
- 37JournalSolvation of the Bismuth(III) Ion by Water, Dimethyl Sulfoxide, N,N'-Dimethylpropyleneurea, and N,N-Dimethylthioformamide. An EXAFS, Large-Angle X-ray Scattering, and Crystallographic Structural StudyJan Näslund et al. — 2000
- 38JournalBi-Nd (Bismuth-Neodymium)H. Okamoto — 2002-03-01
- 39BookChemistry of arsenic, antimony, and bismuthS. M. Godfrey et al. — Springer — 1998
- 403D counterpart to graphene discovered UPDATEKurzweilAI — 20 January 2014
- 41JournalDiscovery of a Three-Dimensional Topological Dirac Semimetal, Na3BiZ. K. Liu et al. — 2014
- 42BookHandbook of Mineralogy: Elements, Sulfides, SulfosaltsMineralogical Society of America — 15 April 1990
- 45JournalThe preparation of bismuth for use in a liquid-metal fuelled reactorG. W. Horsley — 1957
- 46JournalPb distribution in multistep bismuth refining productsYu. V. Shevtsov et al. — 2011
- 47JournalBismuth—Production, properties, and applicationsFunsho K. Ojebuoboh — 1992
- 49ReportReport on critical raw materials and the circular economyM. Gislev et al. — Publications Office of the European Union — 2018-11-05
- 50IKP, Department of Life-Cycle EngineeringWarburg, N — University of Stuttgart
- 512018 USGS Minerals Yearbook: BismuthSingerling, Sheryl A. et al. — United States Geological Survey
- 53JournalBinding and killing of bacteria by bismuth subsalicylateSox TE — 1989
- 54P/74/2009: European Medicines Agency decision of 20 April 2009 on the granting of a product specific waiver for Bismuth subcitrate potassium / Metronidazole / Tetracycline hydrochloride (EMEA-000382-PIP01-08) in accordance with Regulation (EC) No 1901/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council as amendedEuropean Medicines Agency — 2009-06-10
- 55JournalUpdate on triple therapy for eradication of Helicobacter pylori: current status of the artUrgesi R, Cianci R, Riccioni ME — 2012
- 56BookAntiseptic prophylaxis and therapy in ocular infections: principles, clinical practice, and infection controlGurtler L — Karger — January 2002
- 57JournalBismuth therapy in gastrointestinal diseasesGorbach SL — September 1990
- 58JournalCorrespondence: Bismuth subgallate as an effective means for the control of ileostomy odor: a double blind studySparberg M — March 1974
- 59BookPaleopathology of ChildrenLewis M — Elsevier — 2018
- 60JournalHallmarks in history of syphilis therapeuticsKaramanou M, Kyriakis K, Tsoucalas G, Androutsos G — December 2013
- 61JournalBismuth in the treatment of syphilisDegos R — June 1977
- 62JournalBismuth in the Treatment of SyphilisParnell, R. J. G. — 1924
- 63Giemsa, Gustav (1924) "Manufacture of bismuth tartrates"
- 64JournalSyphilis – Its Early History and Treatment Until Penicillin, and the Debate on its OriginsJohn Frith — November 2012
- 66JournalEffect pigments—past, present and futureFrank J. Maile et al. — 2005
- 67BookSpecial effect pigments: Technical basics and applicationsGerhard Pfaff — Vincentz Network GmbH — 2008
- 68BookADVANCES IN INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, Volume 36Peter J Sadler — Academic Press — 1991
- 69BookFailure analysis of paints and coatingsDwight G. Weldon — Wiley — 2009
- 70JournalBismuth-based semiconductors applied in photocatalytic reduction processes: fundamentals, advances and future perspectivesMeng Shi et al. — 2023
- 71JournalInnovative Design of Bismuth-Telluride-Based Thermoelectric TransistorsHao Deng et al. — January 2023
- 73Book2011 IEEE International Conference of Electron Devices and Solid-State CircuitsTingling Feng et al. — November 2011
- 74Advance may enable "2D" transistors for tinier microchip componentsDavid L. Chandler — 2021-05-13
- 75ReportSN100CV: Save on silver cost and get better reliabilityKeith Sweatman — DKL Metals
- 76JournalBismuth Bronze from Machu Picchu, PeruRobert B. Gordon et al. — American Association for the Advancement of Science — 1984
- 77JournalThe breast: inplane x-ray protection during diagnostic thoracic CT—shielding with bismuth radioprotective garmentsHopper KD — 1997
- 78Adaptation to Scientific and Technical Progress of Annex II Directive 2000/53/ECJoachim Lohse et al. — European Commission — September 2007
- 79JournalCompositional distributions in classical and lead-free brassesA. La Fontaine et al. — 2006
- 80BookSteels: Metallurgy and applicationsD. T. Llewellyn et al. — Butterworth-Heinemann — 1998
- 81BookAluminum and Aluminum AlloysJ. R. Davis — ASM International — 1993
- 82JournalPoisoning effect of bismuth on modification behavior of strontium in LM25 alloySaeed Farahany — 2011
- 83JournalEffect of bismuth on the microstructure of unmodified and Sr-modified Al-7%Si-0.4Mg alloySaeed Farahany — 2011
- 84BSCCONational High Magnetic Field Laboratory
- 85BookRecent trends in thermoelectric materials researchTerry M. Tritt — Academic Press — 2000
- 86BookSolid oxide fuel cells : from fundamental principles to complete systemsRadenka Maric et al. — CRC Press — 2020
- 87BookPhysics and radiobiology of nuclear medicineGopal B. Saha — Springer — 2006
- 88JournalThe photochromic effect of bismuth vanadate pigments: Investigations on the photochromic mechanismAndreas Tücks et al. — 2007
- 89BookColoring of plastics: Fundamentals, colorants, preparationsMüller, Albrecht — Hanser Verlag — 2003
- 90JournalElectrochemical synthesis of hydrogen peroxide from water and oxygenSamuel C. Perry et al. — 19 June 2019
- 91JournalVisible-light-active 'bismuth tungstate/curcuma longa' z-scheme heterostructured photocatalyst for the degradation of methyl orange and phenolIsha Arora et al. — June 2025
- 92JournalHydrothermal synthesis of bismuth-doped tungsten trioxide (Bi-WO3) for photocatalytic hydrogen production applicationKhursheed Ahmad et al. — December 2024
- 94JournalThe performance of bismuth-based compounds in photocatalytic applicationsTimothy O. Ajiboye et al. — April 2021
- 95JournalSelective conversion of CO2 to CO with high efficiency using an bismuth-based electrocatalystDiMeglio, John L. — 2013
- 96BookChemistry and Technology of LubricantsRoy M. Mortier et al. — Springer — 2010
- 97JournalEmission factors and exposures from ground-level pyrotechnicsGerry Croteau et al. — 2010
- 98BookThe Preparatory Manual of Black Powder and PyrotechnicsJared Ledgard — Lulu — 2006
- 99JournalFluorination of arylboronic esters enabled by bismuth redox catalysisOriol Planas et al. — 2020
- 100BookHandbook on the toxicology of metalsFowler, B.A. — Academic Press — 2007
- 101JournalBismuth Toxicity, Often Mild, Can Result in Severe PoisoningsJoseph R. DiPalma — 2001
- 104JournalDrug induced changes in pigmentationAshley Levantine et al. — 1973
- 105BookWHO Model Formulary 2008((World Health Organization)) — World Health Organization — 2009
- 106DimercaprolThe American Society of Health-System Pharmacists
- 107JournalBismuth(III) Volatilization and Immobilization by Filamentous Fungus Aspergillus clavatus During Aerobic IncubationBoriova — 2015
- 108JournalBioaccumulation and biosorption of bismuth Bi (III) by filamentous fungus Aspergillus clavatusBoriova — 2013