Battle of Smolensk (1812)
On the 27th of July, General Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly slipped his First Western Army away from Vitebsk. He avoided a general engagement with Emperor Napoleon after an inconclusive fight. Napoleon lingered at Vitebsk until the 12th of August to reform his forces and wait for stragglers. The main strike force available to Napoleon had been reduced to 185,000 men by five weeks of non-stop operations. A host of factors contributed to this reduction including strategic consumption. Marshal Nicolas Oudinot and Generals Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr, Jean Reynier and Victor de Fay de La Tour-Maubourg were detached for various missions. Russian forces inflicted thousands of combat losses on Napoleon's main army. The primary cause in the reduction of his force was the need to garrison cities, towns, fortresses and forward supply depots. Rapid forced marches and the inability of supply wagon trains led to high incidences of desertion. Tens of thousands of losses occurred due to hunger and disease, most notably dysentery. The scorching July heat reduced the availability of water supplies. Huge numbers of cavalry horses and transportation horses and oxen died due to a lack of grazing areas.
Napoleon came up with what became known as the Smolensk maneuver, a masterful operation designed to outflank Barclay from the south. He intended to cut off the Russians from Moscow and destroy the isolated Russian army. This giant force would advance east along the left bank of the Dnieper. It included Napoleon's column consisting of Joachim Murat's cavalry, the Imperial Guard, III Corps and IV Corps. Davout's column would cross at Orsha, composed of I Corps, V Corps and VIII Corps. French engineers under General Jean Baptiste Eblé erected four pontoon bridges across the Dnieper near Rosasna on the night of 13, the 14th of August. By daybreak the 175,000-strong army was advancing rapidly toward Smolensk. Napoleon's deployment remained hidden from the Russians due to a thick cavalry screen under Generals Emmanuel de Grouchy, Étienne de Nansouty and Louis-Pierre Montbrun. Latour-Maubourg's cavalry attacked down the Dnieper as a diversion. The action at Inkovo on the 7th of August was seen by Napoleon as heralding an immediate Russian attack. Worried, he deployed his army in a defensive posture around III Corps. By the 10th of August, Barclay's glacial slowness of operations had convinced Napoleon that the threat had passed.
Smolensk, a historic fortress city with a population of 12,600, resides along the primary Western route linking Warsaw to Moscow. The formidable Smolensk Kremlin encompassed 38 bastion towers and a sturdy stone wall. To the south, the River Dnieper flows adjacent to this fortified kremlin. On the 16th of August, French forces encountered a heavily fortified city defended by Bagration's troops. An initial probing force captured two suburbs but failed to bring the Russians out to battle. Napoleon ordered a general assault with three corps supported by two hundred artillery pieces. This was initially successful as the intense artillery bombardment set the city on fire. French forces lacked ladders or climbing apparatus to scale the city walls and were under counter fire from Russian artillery. By nightfall, most of the city was burning. Of 2,250 buildings, 84% were destroyed with only 350 surviving intact. Of the city's 15,000 inhabitants, about 1,000 were left at the end of the battle inside the smoking ruins. A German soldier named Staüble had his arm shot away in crossing the stream and died afterward.
The loss of vast stretches of Russian territory led to a crisis and shift in power in the Russian high command. An aggressive faction around Prince Pyotr Bagration called for an immediate, all-out attack against Napoleon. They were supported by Czar Alexander I and the bulk of the officer corps. The foreign faction around Barclay de Tolly advocated the continuation of the present policy of delay and withdrawal. Under strong pressure from above and below, including threats of force, Barclay agreed to an offensive on the 6th of August. Ignorant as to French dispositions, Barclay intended to outflank what he presumed to be the isolated corps of Viceroy Eugène de Beauharnais near Rudnia. Count Matvei Platov's Cossacks imposed a sharp defeat on General Horace Sébastiani's cavalry near Inkovo the same day. Platov was directed to rejoin Barclay's army and Bagration was to move to Vidra. Bagration disobeyed his orders, fearing French Marshal Louis-Nicolas Davout's threat to his left flank. He declared his army was hungry and sick and moved to Smolensk. Barclay failed to stop him, merely adjusting his own forces to compensate.
Barclay de Tolly claimed 4,000 Russian casualties, while Bogdanovich spoke of 6,000. Docturov's VI Corps had 16,800 men available prior to the battle but only 6,000 capable of combat at its end. This would mean 10,800 casualties for one Russian corps alone. Prince Eugen of Württemberg's division lost 1,300 men alone. Gaston Bodart gave 6,000. David Chandler estimates them as 12,000, 14,000. Alexander Mikaberidze suggests 10,000 Russian casualties at Smolensk. Napoleon claimed 700 French killed and 3,100, 3,200 wounded. His estimate is disputed, as I Corps alone under Lobau lost 6,000. Chandler puts French losses at 10,000, while Mikaberidze also suggested 10,000. Bodart listed 10,000. Russian authors claimed the French losses were as high as 20,000. With over 15,000 casualties, it was one of the bloodiest battles of the invasion.
The Tsar replaced the unpopular Barclay de Tolly with Kutuzov on the 29th of August at Tsaryovo Zaymishche. He ordered his men to prepare for battle. Kutuzov understood that Barclay's decision to retreat had been correct. The Tsar, the Russian troops and Russia could not accept further retreat. His order to search for a battleground eastwards led subsequently to the Battle of Lubino and Borodino. Barclay de Tolly abandoned the city destroying all ammunition stores and bridges leaving a small force to hold out for two days to cover his retreat. Around dawn on the 17th of August, Polish forces successfully breached the walls. In a few hours the main French forces entered the city. Barclay retained forces on the other side of the river preventing a crossing until the night of August the 18th. The city was almost completely destroyed.
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Common questions
When did the Battle of Smolensk take place?
The main French forces entered the city on the 17th of August 1812 after Polish troops breached the walls. The battle concluded with Barclay de Tolly retaining forces until the night of the 18th of August to cover his retreat.
Who commanded the Russian army during the Battle of Smolensk in 1812?
General Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly commanded the First Western Army at the start of the engagement. He was replaced by General Mikhail Kutuzov on the 29th of August following a crisis in the Russian high command.
How many buildings were destroyed during the Battle of Smolensk?
Of the 2,250 buildings in the historic fortress city, 84% were destroyed leaving only 350 intact. The intense artillery bombardment set the city on fire and resulted in vast destruction of the urban area.
What were the estimated casualties for the Russian army at the Battle of Smolensk?
Estimates for Russian casualties range from 6,000 to 14,000 men according to historians like David Chandler and Alexander Mikaberidze. Docturov's VI Corps alone suffered 10,800 casualties reducing its strength from 16,800 to 6,000 combat-capable soldiers.
Why did Napoleon order an assault on Smolensk on the 16th of August 1812?
Napoleon ordered a general assault with three corps supported by two hundred artillery pieces to capture the fortified city defended by Bagration's troops. He intended to cut off the Russians from Moscow and destroy the isolated Russian army through this operation.