Baseball color line
On October 16, the Pennsylvania State Convention of Baseball in Harrisburg denied admission to the "colored" Pythian Baseball Club. This decision marked the formal beginning of segregation that would last for decades. Before the Civil War, black players participated in the highest levels of baseball. During the war, baseball rose to prominence as a way to bring soldiers from various regions together. In the aftermath of the war, baseball became a tool for national reconciliation among white Americans.
Major League Baseball's National League, founded in 1876, had no black players in the 19th century except William Edward White. He played in a single game in 1879 and apparently passed as white. The year before, in 1883, prominent player Cap Anson threatened to have his Chicago team sit out an exhibition game at Toledo if Fleetwood Walker played. Anson backed down but uttered the word nigger on the field. In 1884, the American Association had two black players, Moses Fleetwood Walker and Weldy Walker, both playing for the Toledo Blue Stockings.
In 1887, Anson made a successful threat by telegram before an exhibition game against the Newark Little Giants. The International League voted on the 14th of July 1887, to ban signing new contracts with black players. By a 6-to-4 vote, the league's entirely white teams voted in favor. Right after the vote, Sporting Life stated that many representatives declared they were anxious to leave because of the colored element. Black players were gone from high minors after 1889.
Racial segregation in professional baseball was sometimes called a gentlemen's agreement, meaning a tacit understanding without written policy at the highest level. A high minor league's vote in 1887 sent a powerful signal leading to the disappearance of black people from other minor leagues later that century. The National League and the American Association had no written rules against having black players.
The influence of players like Anson and general racism in society led to segregation efforts. After the 1887 season, the International League retained just two black players for 1888: Frank Grant of the Buffalo Bisons and Moses Fleetwood Walker of the Syracuse franchise. Walker stayed in the league for most of 1889. In September 1887, eight members of the St. Louis Browns staged a mutiny during a road trip, refusing to play against the New York Cuban Giants. They cited both racial and practical reasons, wanting to rest so as not to lose their hold on first place.
A story in the Philadelphia Times stated that "for the first time in the history of base ball the color line has been drawn." Black players were gone from high minors after 1889 and a trickle remained in lower minors within a decade. Besides White's single game in 1879, the only black players in major league baseball for around 75 years were Fleet Walker and Weldy Walker, both in 1884 with Toledo.
After the line was in virtually full effect in the early 20th century, many black baseball clubs were established, especially from the 1920s to the 1940s when there were several Negro leagues. The Negro National League was founded by Rube Foster, independent of the National Baseball Commission. The NNL survived through 1931, primarily in the midwest, accompanied by the Eastern Colored League until 1928.
National and American Negro leagues were established in 1933 and 1937 which persisted until integration. The Negro Southern League operated consecutively from 1920 at a lower level. None of them were members of Organized Baseball, the system led by Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis from 1921. Professional baseball in the United States was played in two racially segregated league systems on each side of the color line.
Much of that time there were two high-level Negro major leagues with championship playoffs or all-star games, similar to white major leagues. Bill Veeck tried to buy the Philadelphia Phillies in an attempt to stock them with Negro league stars. When Landis got wind of his plans, he and Ford Frick scuttled it. Veeck stated in his autobiography that he wanted to hire black players because best black athletes could run faster and jump higher than best white athletes.
While professional baseball was formally regarded as strictly white-men-only, the racial color bar was primarily directed against black players. Other races were allowed to play in professional white baseball. Charles Albert Bender, star pitcher for the Philadelphia Athletics in 1910, was son of Chippewa mother and German father. He had nickname Chief from white players. Deceptive tactics included attempts to sign black players claiming they were American Indian to circumvent the ban.
In 1901, John McGraw tried to add Charlie Grant to Baltimore Orioles roster as second baseman. He tried passing him as Cherokee named Charlie Tokohama. Grant went along with charade but tryout in Chicago attended by his black friends gave him away. He never got opportunity to play ball in Major League. On the 28th of May 1916, Canadian-American Jimmy Claxton temporarily broke barrier when playing two games for Oakland Oaks of Pacific Coast League. Introduced by part-American Indian friend as fellow Oklahoma tribe member, Zee-Nut candy company rushed out baseball card for Claxton.
Within a week, friend revealed he had both Negro and Indigenous Canadian ancestors, and Claxton promptly fired. Nearly thirty more years passed before another known black man played organized white baseball. One possible attempt occurred in 1911 when Cincinnati Reds signed light-skinned players from Cuba, Armando Marsans and Rafael Almeida. Both had played Negro Baseball barnstorming as members of integrated All Cubans.
As writer for Daily Worker, Lester Rodney utilized media role to help integrate Major League Baseball by pressuring establishment. By late 1930s, MLB managers including Burleigh Grimes admitted to sportswriters at Daily Worker that black ballplayers were Big League Quality. No one wanted career jeopardy by allowing statement on official record. Despite general support from many managers and players like Bill McKechnie, Doc Prothro, Leo Durocher, Ray Blades, Casey Stengel, Pie Traynor, Gabby Hartnett, Ernie Lombardi, Mel Ott, Carl Hubbell, Johnny Vander Meer, Bucky Walters, Al Simmons, Hans Wagner, Paul Waner, Lloyd Waner, Arky Vaughan, Augie Galan, Dizzy Dean, Paul Dean, Pepper Martin, all went along with MLB's official position.
Rodney rejected notion explaining in the 23rd of July 1939 column that blaming white players and fans was preposterous excuse easily disproven by large fan turnouts for exhibition games between major-league and Negro League all-star teams. Fellow sportswriting activists such as Wendell Smith commended Rodney's efforts, writing to him congratulating him and Daily Worker for joining them on current series concerning Negro players in major leagues.
Paul Robeson, former athlete and American political activist, advocated desegregation in all aspects of American life. He was part of December 1943 meeting with MLB Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis to appeal breaking color line. He publicly argued single greatest burden United States carried was policy of racial discrimination. Despite staunch support, Robeson faced huge criticism from peers for holding communist sympathies. Jackie Robinson was one large critic of Robeson's political ties.
The color line was breached when Rickey, with support of new commissioner Happy Chandler, signed Jackie Robinson in October. Chandler mentioned if Black boy could make it on Okinawa and Guadalcanal fighting World War II, he could make it in baseball. After year in minor leagues with Montreal Royals of International League, Robinson called up to Dodgers. He endured epithets and death threats getting off slow start. His athleticism and skill earned first ever Rookie of Year award now named in his honor.
In 1947, Larry Doby signed with Bill Veeck's Cleveland Indians becoming American League's first black player. Doby more low-key figure than Robinson suffered many same indignities albeit with less press coverage. As baseball historian Daniel Okrent wrote, Robinson had two year drum roll while Doby just showed up. Both men ultimately elected to Baseball Hall of Fame on merits of play. Willard Brown played briefly in 1947 for St. Louis Browns and was first black player to hit home run in American League. He too elected to Hall of Fame based on career in Negro leagues.
Prior to major league integration, Brooklyn Dodgers led minor league integration. Jackie Robinson and Johnny Wright assigned to Montreal but also Don Newcombe and Roy Campanella became members of Nashua Dodgers in class-B New England League. Nashua first minor-league team based in United States to integrate roster after 1946. Subsequently that season Pawtucket Slaters Boston Braves' New England League franchise integrated roster as did Trois-Rivières Quebec.
Boston Red Sox were last major league team to integrate holding out until 1959 few months after Detroit Tigers. This due to steadfast resistance provided by team owner Tom Yawkey. In April 1945, Red Sox refused consider signing Jackie Robinson and future Boston Braves outfielder Sam Jethroe after giving him brief tryout at Fenway Park. Tryout farce chiefly designed assuage desegregationist sensibilities of Boston City Councilman Isadore H. Y. Muchnick threatening revoke team's exemption from Sunday blue laws. Even with stands limited to management, Robinson subjected to racial epithets leaving humiliated.
On the 7th of April 1959, during spring training, Yawkey and general manager Bucky Harris named in lawsuit charging discrimination and deliberate barring black players. NAACP issued charges following anti-Negro policy while Massachusetts Commission Against Discrimination announced public hearing on racial bias against Red Sox. Thus Red Sox forced integrate becoming last pre-expansion major-league team when Harris promoted Pumpsie Green from AAA farm club. On July 21, Green debuted for team as pinch runner joined later season by Earl Wilson second black player.
In early to mid 1960s team added other players including Joe Foy, José Tartabull, George Scott, George Smith, John Wyatt, Elston Howard and Reggie Smith. The 1967 Red Sox won Impossible Dream pennant losing to St. Louis Cardinals in seven games that year World Series. Tom Yawkey died in 1976 and widow Jean Yawkey eventually sold team to Haywood Sullivan and Buddy LeRoux.
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Common questions
When did the formal beginning of segregation in baseball occur?
The formal beginning of segregation occurred on October 16 when the Pennsylvania State Convention of Baseball denied admission to the Pythian Baseball Club. This decision marked the start of a policy that would last for decades.
Who was the first black player to play in Major League Baseball after 1879?
Moses Fleetwood Walker and Weldy Walker were the only black players in major league baseball from 1884 until integration. They both played for the Toledo Blue Stockings in the American Association during that year.
What year did the International League vote to ban signing new contracts with black players?
The International League voted on the 14th of July 1887 to ban signing new contracts with black players. A 6-to-4 vote by entirely white teams sent a powerful signal leading to the disappearance of black people from other minor leagues later that century.
When did Jackie Robinson officially break the color line in professional baseball?
Jackie Robinson broke the color line when he signed with the Brooklyn Dodgers in October 1945. He called up to the team after playing one year in the minor leagues with the Montreal Royals of the International League.
Which Major League Baseball team integrated last and when did it happen?
The Boston Red Sox were the last major league team to integrate on the 7th of April 1959. General manager Bucky Harris promoted Pumpsie Green from the AAA farm club following a lawsuit charging discrimination and deliberate barring of black players.