Short answers, pulled from the story.
The University of Bologna began teaching Roman law in 1088. This date marks the first university that fits the modern definition of a degree-awarding institute with independence from ecclesiastic schools.
The term universitas originally meant a community, guild, or corporation of teachers and scholars. These early groups developed collective legal rights guaranteed by charters issued by princes or prelates.
Johns Hopkins University adopted this research model when founded in 1876. Nearly the entire faculty had studied in Germany during its early years.
Massachusetts grants university status only if an institution awards at least two doctoral degrees. Definitions vary widely even within countries where government agencies set clarification standards.
Nordic public universities remained entirely without tuition fees until around 2005 when Denmark Sweden and Finland introduced charges for foreign students. Citizens of EU member states remain exempted from these fees despite increased costs elsewhere.