Short answers, pulled from the story.
A shareholder is an individual or legal entity registered by a corporation as the legal owner of shares of its share capital. A person or organisation becomes a shareholder when they acquire shares and their name and details are entered in the corporation's register of shareholders or members.
A beneficial shareholder is the person or entity that holds the actual economic benefit of owning shares. A nominee shareholder is the entity whose name appears on the corporate register while acting for the benefit of the beneficial owner. In most jurisdictions the relationship is governed by trust law, meaning a nominee's insolvency does not affect the beneficial shareholder's assets.
Ordinary shareholders can participate in general meetings, vote in director elections, vote on mergers and changes to the corporate charter, receive declared dividends, file class action lawsuits, and receive a share of any remaining assets after a liquidation. They can also vote on management compensation and delegate their rights to others.
Preference shareholders receive a fixed rate of dividend that is paid before any dividend is distributed to ordinary shareholders. Unlike ordinary shareholders, preference shareholders usually do not have voting rights in the company.
Shareholders are legally separate from the corporation itself and are generally not liable for its debts. Their liability is limited to the unpaid price of their shares, unless a shareholder has separately offered guarantees.
Under China's Supreme Court rules, a nominee shareholder cannot avoid liability for debt-collection actions by claiming they are not the beneficial owner. If a capital call is made and the beneficial owner fails to provide funding, the nominee must cover it from their own funds. Shares held through a Chinese nominee arrangement can also be inherited or divided as marital property.