Short answers, pulled from the story.
Martin Luther started the Protestant Reformation on the 31st of October 1517 when he nailed his ninety-five statements to the door of All Saints' Church in Wittenberg. This document criticized the sale of indulgences by the Catholic Church and argued that salvation was a gift from God rather than something purchasable with money.
Protestant theology centers on five Latin phrases known as the Five Solae which summarize differences between Protestants and Catholics. These principles include Sola Scriptura, Justification by faith alone, Grace alone, Glory to God alone, and Christ alone as the only mediator between God and man.
The Thirty Years War lasted from 1618 until 1648 and devastated much of Germany while estimates suggest it killed between 25% and 40% of the German population. The Peace of Westphalia ended this conflict and recognized the right of princes to determine their state religion despite Catholicism remaining official in many areas.
John Calvin established Geneva as an unofficial capital for the Protestant movement after arriving there in 1536. His Ordinances of 1541 brought church affairs under collaboration with the city council and solidified his influence over the region.
The First Great Awakening occurred in the 1730s and 1740s leaving a permanent impact on American Protestantism through powerful preaching that gave listeners a sense of deep personal revelation regarding salvation by Jesus Christ. Membership rose rapidly among Baptist and Methodist congregations after 1820 during the Second Great Awakening.