Short answers, pulled from the story.
Ottoman Egypt began with the conquest of Mamluk Egypt by Sultan Selim I in 1517 and formally ended on the 5th of November 1914, when Britain declared Egypt a protectorate in response to the Ottoman Empire joining the First World War on the side of the Central Powers. In practice, Egypt had been under de facto British control since 1882.
The Mamluks were a military caste that had ruled Egypt for centuries before the Ottoman conquest. After 1517, the Ottomans left the Mamluk land register unchanged and retained Mamluk emirs as heads of the twelve sanjaks into which Egypt was divided. Between 1688 and 1755, Mamluk beys allied with Bedouin and garrison factions deposed at least thirty-four Ottoman governors.
Muhammad Ali was an Albanian military commander in the Ottoman army who seized power in Egypt in 1805, three years after the French occupation ended. He took advantage of the chaotic civil war between Albanians, Mamluks, and Ottomans to assert control, eventually making the government of Egypt hereditary in his family by 1841.
Egypt under Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century ranked fifth in the world for cotton industry productivity measured by spindles per capita. He created state monopolies over Egypt's chief products, began the Mahmudiya Canal to Alexandria in 1819, and developed cotton cultivation in the Delta from 1822. Economic historian Jean Batou has argued that the conditions for rapid industrialization existed in Egypt during the 1820s-1830s.
Sa'id Pasha granted Ferdinand de Lesseps a concession to build the Suez Canal in 1854. His successor Khedive Isma'il accumulated a national debt exceeding one hundred million pounds sterling and sold Egypt's Suez Canal shares to the British Government in 1875 for £3,976,582. Foreign financial oversight followed, leading to Isma'il's deposition in 1879, nationalist resistance, and ultimately British military occupation after the defeat of Egyptian forces at Tell El Kebir in September 1882.
Napoleon Bonaparte's forces took Egypt in 1798, defeated the Mamluk forces of Murad Bey and Ibrahim Bey at the Battle of Embabeh, and established a municipal council in Cairo. The occupation was undermined by the destruction of the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile and a Cairo insurrection on the 22nd of October 1798. The French evacuated in 1801 after British and Ottoman forces compelled their surrender; the last French commander, Menou, left Alexandria in September 1801 with 10,000 men.