Short answers, pulled from the story.
The British government launched the vessel named Challenger in 1872. This four-year voyage fundamentally altered humanity's understanding of the planet by proving that the deep sea teemed with life and complex geological features.
Pedro Nunes developed the loxodromic curve in 1527 to provide a geometric solution for navigating the sphere of the Earth on flat maps. This mathematician was appointed to instruct pilots and enabled ships to execute the volta do largo maneuver to catch westerly winds.
Benjamin Franklin and Timothy Folger published the first map of the Gulf Stream in 1769. This document revolutionized maritime travel by allowing ships to harness the current for speed or avoid it to prevent delays.
Jack Corliss and Robert Ballard discovered deep-sea vents in 1977 using the submersible Alvin. This discovery revealed ecosystems that thrived without sunlight and challenged the fundamental understanding of life on Earth.
The ocean has absorbed 90% of the energy accumulation associated with global warming since 1971. This absorption makes the ocean a critical component of Earth's energy balance and a vital tool for understanding climate change.