Short answers, pulled from the story.
Motion in physics is the change in position of an object with respect to a reference point over a given time. It is described mathematically through displacement, distance, velocity, acceleration, speed, and frame of reference relative to an observer.
Kinematics is the branch of physics that describes the motion of objects without reference to their cause. Dynamics is the branch that studies forces and their effect on motion.
Newton's first law states that an object remains at rest or moves in a straight line at constant velocity unless acted on by a net force. The second law sets the vector sum of forces equal to mass times acceleration. The third law states that when one body exerts a force on a second, the second exerts an equal and opposite force back.
Newton's laws were first compiled in Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which was first published on the 5th of July 1687. They gave the first accurate mathematical model for understanding orbiting bodies in outer space.
Light moves at 299,792,458 metres per second in a vacuum. This is the speed of all massless particles and the upper limit on the speed at which energy, matter, information, or causation can travel.
The Earth rotates on its axis with an eastward velocity of 0.4651 kilometres per second at the equator, and it orbits the Sun at an average speed of about 30 kilometres per second, completing one orbit in about 365 days. The Milky Way itself moves at roughly 600 kilometres per second relative to nearby galaxies.
Types of motion include simple harmonic motion, linear or rectilinear motion, reciprocal motion, Brownian motion, circular motion, rotatory motion, curvilinear motion, rolling motion, oscillatory motion, vibratory motion, and projectile motion. The fundamental motions are linear, circular, oscillation, wave, relative, and rotary motion.