What are the Mahayana sutras and why are they important?
The Mahayana sutras are Buddhist texts accepted as canonical scripture in Mahayana Buddhist communities, preserved in Sanskrit manuscripts and in translations including the Tibetan Kangyur and the Chinese Tripitaka. Several hundred survive across these collections, and texts like the Heart Sutra and Diamond Sutra are considered fundamental by most modern Mahayana traditions. They contain the distinctive Mahayana teachings on the bodhisattva path, emptiness, pure lands, and the nature of Buddhahood.
When were the Mahayana sutras first composed?
Modern scholars generally agree the Mahayana sutras began to be more widely disseminated between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE. The earliest objectively dated Mahayana texts are ten sutras translated into Chinese by the monk Lokaksema before 186 CE. Some scholars believe the very first Prajnaparamita sutras and texts concerning the Buddha Akshobhya were composed in south India in the 1st century BCE.
Were the Mahayana sutras accepted by all Buddhists in ancient India?
No. The Theravada tradition of Sri Lanka did not accept them as the word of the Buddha, with Mahavihara sub-school commentaries calling them Vedalla or Vetulla and describing them as counterfeit scriptures. The Sammitiya school was also strongly opposed, and a monk named Prajnagupta is reported by Xuanzang to have composed a formal treatise arguing against them. Debate over their authenticity was widespread throughout the ancient Buddhist world.
How did Mahayana Buddhists explain the late appearance of the Mahayana sutras?
Several explanations circulated. One held that most people at the time of the Buddha around 500 BCE were unable to understand the teachings, so the texts were preserved until suitable recipients appeared. Traditional accounts of the Prajnaparamita sutras say they were hidden in the realm of the nagas and later retrieved by the philosopher Nagarjuna. Other sources described the texts as revelations transmitted through visions and meditative experiences by celestial Buddhas and bodhisattvas.
Who was Lokaksema and what role did he play in spreading the Mahayana sutras?
Lokaksema was a Kushan monk from the kingdom of Gandhara who made the first translations of Mahayana sutras into Chinese. He worked in the Eastern Han capital of Luoyang between 178 and 189 CE. Among the texts reliably attributed to him is the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra. His translations constitute the earliest objectively dated body of Mahayana texts in any language.
What is the oldest surviving woodblock print in the world and how does it relate to Mahayana sutras?
The oldest surviving woodblock print in the world is the Great Dharani Sutra of Immaculate and Pure Light, a Korean dharani text. Dharani sutras, which focus on the recitation of powerful incantations, became widely popular in East Asia during the first millennium CE, and the demand for printed copies of dharani texts drove early innovations in block printing technology.