Short answers, pulled from the story.
A series of famines and plagues, including the Great Famine of 1315, 1317 and the Black Death, reduced the European population to around half of what it had been before the calamities. Estimates of the death rate caused by this epidemic range from one third to as much as sixty percent.
The election of different popes in Avignon and Rome resulted in the Western Schism between 1378 and 1417. The Council of Constance between 1414 and 1418 united the Papacy once more in Rome.
Jews were expelled from England in 1290, from France in 1306, from Spain in 1492, and from Portugal in 1497. Anti-Jewish pogroms were carried out all over Europe with two thousand Jews murdered in Strasbourg in February 1349.
Through battles such as Courtrai in 1302, Bannockburn in 1314, and Morgarten in 1315, it became clear that a well equipped infantry was preferable to feudal cavalry. The introduction of gunpowder affected the conduct of war significantly while cannons changed the architectural structure of fortifications.
The first secular chivalric order was the Order of St. George founded by Charles I of Hungary in 1325. The best known was probably the English Order of the Garter founded by Edward III in 1348.