Short answers, pulled from the story.
Edmund Gettier defined knowledge as justified true belief but formulated counterexamples that shattered this prevailing definition. His scenarios showed that a belief can be true and justified yet still fail to constitute knowledge due to epistemic luck.
The ancient period of knowledge development began about 3000 BCE in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China. This era saw the rise of major civilizations and the invention of writing which increased stable knowledge within society.
Immanuel Kant proposed an influential theory that knowledge is restricted to the field of appearances and does not reach the things in themselves. This theory suggests that things exist independently of humans but remain beyond the reach of human knowledge.
Instrumental value refers to the practical benefits of knowledge such as passing an exam or earning money from bets. Intrinsic value suggests that some forms of knowledge are good in themselves even if they do not provide practical benefits.
The sociology of knowledge studies how thought and society are related to each other by examining the sociohistorical circumstances in which knowledge arises. It understands knowledge in a wide sense that encompasses philosophical and political ideas, religious and ideological doctrines, folklore, law, and technology.
The main types of knowledge include propositional knowledge which is theoretical knowledge about facts, and non-propositional knowledge which includes knowledge-how and knowledge by acquaintance. Other types include self-knowledge, metaknowledge, situated knowledge, explicit knowledge, and tacit knowledge.