Short answers, pulled from the story.
The Hebrew Bible does not use the phrase "chosen people" directly; it is a rabbinic term. The biblical terms describe the Israelites as "treasure people" (am segullah) and "heritage people" (am nahallah). The verb "bahar," meaning to choose, appears in Deuteronomy 7:6, and Exodus 19:6 calls Israel a "holy people" (goy kadosh).
Orthodox Judaism links chosenness to the Sinaitic covenant and Torah obligations. Conservative Judaism frames it as accountability rather than superiority, citing Amos 3:2 in its 1988 Statement of Principles. Reform Judaism describes it as a universal moral mission; Reconstructionist Judaism rejected the concept in the mid-1980s as "morally untenable."
In the third chapter of his Theologico-Political Treatise, Spinoza argued that God's choice of Israel was not unique, not inclusive of all Jews, not exclusive of non-Jews, and not unconditional. He drew his evidence from the Bible itself, citing God's repeated threats of complete destruction as proof the covenant was neither absolute nor eternal.
Reconstructionist Judaism formally rejected the concept in its mid-1980s Platform on Reconstructionism, calling it "morally untenable." It rewrote the Torah blessing from "who has chosen us from among all peoples" to "who has drawn us to your service." The movement's newest prayer book, Kol Haneshamah, includes both versions as options.
The Quran acknowledges a special status for the children of Israel in verses 2:47 and 2:122. Muslim scholars interpret this status as conditional on maintaining the covenant with God and as carrying no racial superiority.
In a German-language letter to the philosopher Eric Gutkind, dated the 3rd of January 1954, Einstein explained that he rejected religious belief, the divine origin of the Bible, and the idea that Jews are chosen. He valued his Jewish cultural identity but did not accept the theological claims underlying chosenness.