Short answers, pulled from the story.
Classical utilitarianism is a theory that proposes maximizing pleasure as the only rule, formulated by the English philosopher Jeremy Bentham in the late 18th century. Bentham introduced the hedonic calculus to measure the intensity and duration of pleasure, arguing that the right action produces the greatest good for the greatest number.
The three main schools of thought in normative ethics are consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics. Consequentialism focuses on outcomes, deontology championed by Immanuel Kant emphasizes duties regardless of consequences, and virtue ethics rooted in Aristotle focuses on character and virtues like courage and compassion.
Philippa Foot introduced the trolley problem in 1967 as a thought experiment to explore the moral difference between doing and allowing harm. The scenario involves a runaway trolley heading towards five people where pulling a lever to divert it kills one person to save the five.
Bioethics is the branch of applied ethics concerned with living organisms and biological disciplines that addresses issues such as abortion, cloning, stem cell research, and euthanasia. It also covers the moral implications of intensive animal farming, nuclear waste, air pollution, and the moral status of fetuses and animals.
Corporate social responsibility is the idea that corporations should act in a manner that benefits society at large and involves stakeholders from CEOs and board members to shareholders and employees. The concept addresses the moral implications of bribery, conflict of interest, and the protection of investors and consumers.