Women's rights
In ancient Sumer, a woman named Enheduanna stood as the earliest known poet whose name has been recorded. She served as the priestess of Inanna, a female deity widely worshipped in Mesopotamia. Women there could buy, own, sell, and inherit property. They engaged in commerce and testified in court as witnesses. Yet husbands held power to divorce them for mild infractions. A divorced husband could remarry another woman if his first wife bore him no offspring. Old Babylonian law codes allowed a husband to divorce his wife under any circumstances. Doing so required him to return all her property and sometimes pay her a fine. Most law codes forbade a woman from requesting divorce herself. They enforced penalties on a woman asking for divorce equal to those caught committing adultery. Some Babylonian and Assyrian laws did afford women the same right to divorce as men. These laws required them to pay the same fine.
In ancient Egypt, women enjoyed rights under the law similar to men, though social class determined actual entitlements. Landed property descended in the female line from mother to daughter. Women administered their own property. They bought, sold, partnered in legal contracts, executed wills, witnessed documents, brought court actions, and adopted children. The statue of Hatshepsut stands today at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. She was a female pharaoh who ruled during this era. Her reign demonstrated that women could hold supreme political power in ancient times.
Ancient Greece presented a complex picture. In Sparta, women owned approximately 35% to 40% of all land after protracted warfare in the 4th century BC. Spartan women controlled properties and managed estates while men fought wars. Yet they remained excluded from military and political life formally. Plato acknowledged that extending civil rights to women would alter the state's nature. Aristotle argued that wives were "bought" and their labor added no value. Stoic philosophers countered with theories of sexual equality. They followed Cynics who believed men and women should wear identical clothing and receive equal education. Stoics viewed marriage as moral companionship between equals rather than biological necessity.
Confucian thinking relegated women in China to subordinate roles for centuries. Foot binding altered bone structure so feet measured only about four inches long. About 45% of Chinese women had bound feet in the 19th century. For upper classes, it reached nearly 100%. The practice caused difficulty moving and limited activities greatly. Women became reluctant to be treated by male doctors due to social customs forbidding proximity between sexes. This created a need for female medical missionaries like Mary H. Fulton. She founded the Hackett Medical College for Women in China. The college aimed to spread Christianity and modern medicine while elevating women's status.
The Bible depicts women having rights to represent themselves in court. It grants ability to make contracts and purchase property. Old Testament laws order husbands to feed and clothe their wives. Breach of these rights gave grounds for divorce if a polygamous man violated them. The Qur'an prescribed limited rights for women regarding marriage and inheritance. It required dowries from husbands to wives as personal property. This made women legal parties to marriage contracts. Inheritance rules distributed fixed shares to designated heirs starting with nearest female relatives then males. Annemarie Schimmel noted Islamic legislation meant enormous progress compared to pre-Islamic Arab women. Islam prohibited female infanticide and recognized full personhood for women. Muhammad testified on behalf of women's rights according to Professor William Montgomery Watt.
Medieval Christian Church protected wives' rights through early provisions. Council of Adge promulgated Canon XVI in 506 requiring husband consent before ordination. Welsh law allowed women to testify against other women but not men. Laws of Hywel Dda held men accountable for child maintenance born out of wedlock. Swedish law transferred authority from husbands to male relatives. A wife's property could not be taken without family consent. Sweden treated women superiorly compared to most European countries during this period.
Thousands across Europe faced execution during the 16th and 17th centuries witch trials. Between 75% and 95% of those executed were women depending on time and place. Executions mostly occurred in German-speaking lands. The term "witchcraft" became viewed as feminine by the 15th century. Famous manuals like Malleus Maleficarum depicted witches as diabolical conspirators worshipping Satan. These texts primarily portrayed women as seductive and evil figures. Authors Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger justified beliefs claiming women possessed greater credulity and impressionability. They argued women had feeble minds, bodies, impulsivity, and carnal natures susceptible to evil behavior.
Roman mythical night creatures called Strix traced origins of female witch myths. These appeared mysteriously at night and disappeared quickly. Jewish Sabbath descriptions mentioned non-supernatural women leaving home swiftly during nights. Beliefs sent female hermits or beggars to trials simply for offering remedies or herbal medicine. Thousands eventually burned at stakes during these developed myths. English Common Law from the 12th century onward made all property a husband's possession upon marriage. Courts later forbade transferring property without wife consent but retained management rights. French married women suffered legal capacity restrictions removed only in 1965.
Olympe de Gouges published Declaration of Rights of Woman and Female Citizen in 1791. The document modeled itself on Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen from 1789. It stated revolution would take effect when all women became fully aware of their deplorable condition. De Gouges expanded sixth article declaring citizens' right to form laws. She declared all citizens including women equally admissible to public dignities and offices. Mary Wollstonecraft wrote A Vindication of Rights of Woman in 1792. Her work argued education created limited expectations for women. She attacked gender oppression demanding justice and rights to humanity for everyone.
John Stuart Mill described Britain's situation for women in his 1869 essay Subjection of Women. He called wives actual bondservants no less than slaves commonly so called. As member of parliament, Mill proposed replacing term "man" with "person" in second Reform Bill of 1867. His amendment defeated by vote count of 76 against 196 in House of Commons. Arguments won little support among contemporaries yet generated greater attention for suffrage issues. Millicent Fawcett and Emmeline Pankhurst led public campaigns allowing women over age 30 to vote in 1918. By the 1860s economic sexual politics guided middle-class women in Britain and Western Europe.
New Zealand became first country granting women voting rights nationally in 1893. Australia followed giving women right to vote in 1902. Finland granted voting rights in 1906 while Norway did so in 1913. Denmark and Iceland extended suffrage in 1915. Many countries followed after First World War ended including Netherlands in 1917. Austria, Azerbaijan, Russia, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Georgia, Poland, Sweden all granted votes between 1918 and 1919. Germany and Luxembourg gave women suffrage in 1919. Turkey allowed voting rights in 1934.
United States granted women suffrage in 1920. Greece adopted it in 1952 while Switzerland delayed until 1971 at federal level. Portugal implemented equal terms with men in 1976 though restrictions existed since 1931. San Marino granted voting rights in 1959, Monaco in 1962, Andorra in 1970, Liechtenstein in 1984. Canadian provinces enacted suffrage between 1917 and 1919 except Prince Edward Island in 1922 and Newfoundland in 1925. Quebec waited until 1940 for provincial voting rights. Latin American nations like Ecuador (1929), Brazil (1932), El Salvador (1939) granted early access. India achieved universal suffrage under colonial rule in 1935. Japan enfranchised women in 1945 while China did so in 1947.
Leslie Wah-Leung Chung served as President of Hong Kong Chinese Civil Servants Association from 1965 to 1968. He contributed establishing equal pay for men and women including permanent employee status for married women. Before this reform job status changed from permanent to temporary once a woman married. Some lost pensions entirely while others lost jobs completely. Nurses mostly being women meant improvements greatly affected nursing profession. France allowed married women working without husband consent only after 1965. Spain followed suit removing restrictions in 1975.
Marriage bars adopted late 19th century through 1970s restricted married women employment across many countries. Austria, Australia, Ireland, Canada, Switzerland all implemented these practices restricting professions. Maternity leave policies varied significantly by country within European Union members. EU members must abide minimum standards of Pregnant Workers Directive and Work-Life Balance Directive. Different rules govern maternity leave, paternity leave, parental leave globally. Rights regarding reproductive health remain key issues ensuring gender equality workplace. States must inform women about legal rights enabling them seek justice realizing practical freedoms.
Yemen's personal law states wives must obey husbands and cannot leave home without consent. Several Middle Eastern countries follow male guardianship systems requiring permission for travel abroad. Saudi Arabia ended its male guardianship laws in August 2019 allowing independent travel. Until 1983 Australian passport applications required husband authorization for married women. Various practices historically restricted freedom including foot binding common between 10th and 20th centuries China.
Women outside homes face abuse such as insults sexual harassment violence where leaving not socially accepted. Many restrictions framed as measures protecting women yet limiting movement severely. United Nations Development Programme notes significant progress in Kazakhstan though discrimination persists. Bride kidnapping remains serious problem in Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Karakalpakstan regions. Central Asian cultures largely remain patriarchal despite secular societies becoming more progressive post-Soviet Union fall. Mongolia sees more women completing school than men with higher earnings resulting from this shift.
Common questions
Who was the earliest known poet whose name has been recorded in ancient Sumer?
Enheduanna stood as the earliest known poet whose name has been recorded. She served as the priestess of Inanna, a female deity widely worshipped in Mesopotamia.
When did New Zealand become the first country to grant women voting rights nationally?
New Zealand became the first country granting women voting rights nationally in 1893. Australia followed giving women right to vote in 1902 and Finland granted voting rights in 1906.
What were the property rights for women in ancient Egypt compared to men?
Women enjoyed rights under the law similar to men though social class determined actual entitlements. Landed property descended in the female line from mother to daughter and women administered their own property.
Why did foot binding alter bone structure so feet measured only about four inches long in China?
Foot binding altered bone structure so feet measured only about four inches long and caused difficulty moving while limiting activities greatly. About 45% of Chinese women had bound feet in the 19th century and it reached nearly 100% for upper classes.
How many years after the 1791 Declaration of Rights of Woman and Female Citizen was published did France allow married women working without husband consent?
France allowed married women working without husband consent only after 1965 which is 174 years after Olympe de Gouges published her declaration in 1791. The document modeled itself on Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen from 1789.