Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War

• 1. Capital Under Siege

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  President Abraham Lincoln stood beneath the unfinished dome of the United States Capitol on the 4th of March 1861. The city felt like a small town that was virtually deserted during the torrid summer months before the war began. In February 1861, delegates from 21 states met at the Willard Hotel to try and stop the coming conflict. Their strenuous effort failed when Virginia voted for secession in April 1861. Suddenly neighboring Maryland might also leave the Union and surround the capital with hostile territory. Lincoln jailed pro-slavery leaders without trial to keep Maryland inside the Union. Only three hundred to four hundred marines protected the federal city at first. Confederate forces desired to occupy Washington and massed troops to take it. On April 10, soldiers began to trickle into the city. A riot in Baltimore threatened further reinforcements until Andrew Carnegie built a railroad around the danger zone. Soldiers arrived safely on April 25. By mid-summer thousands of raw volunteers filled streets that once held only 75,800 people. George Templeton Strong called the place detestable due to crowd heat bad quarters and swarms of flies. When Brigadier General Irvin McDowell's army staggered back after the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861, demoralized troops wandered the streets. Lincoln ordered extensive fortifications immediately.

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• 2. Fortifying The City

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  Major General George B. McClellan assumed command of the Department of the Potomac on the 17th of August 1861. He laid out lines for a complete ring of entrenchments covering miles of land. Enclosed forts rose on high hills while field artillery batteries sat in gaps between them. Interconnected rifle pits allowed highly effective cooperative fire across the defensive line. The layout made the city one of the most heavily defended locations in the world by 1865. Sixty-eight forts stood along the perimeter with over miles of rifle pits supporting them. Ninety-three separate batteries placed over fifteen hundred guns including mortars on this line. Military-only roads stretched for miles connecting four individual picket stations. Confederate Lieutenant General Jubal A. Early led an invasion force during the Battle of Fort Stevens on the 11th of July 12, 1864. Union soldiers repelled his troops when Lincoln visited the fort to observe the fighting. That battle marked the first time since the war began that a U.S. president came under enemy fire. The capital's defenses deterred further attacks from the Confederate Army throughout the rest of the conflict. By 1865 the defenses covered both land and sea approaches completely.

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• 3. Population And Infrastructure Boom

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  The 1860 Census recorded just over 75,000 persons living within the district boundaries. Warehouses supply depots ammunition dumps and factories were established to provide material for Union armies. Civilian workers and contractors flocked to the city seeking employment opportunities. Slavery was abolished throughout the district on the 16th of April 1862 through the Compensated Emancipation Act. Many formerly enslaved people congregated in Washington after emancipation. They worked constructing the ring of fortresses surrounding the city. Overcrowding severely strained the water supply as the population grew rapidly. The Army Corps of Engineers constructed a new aqueduct bringing fresh water daily. Police and fire protection increased significantly during these years. Work resumed to complete the unfinished dome of the Capitol Building. Most streets remained unpaved with poor sanitation garbage collection and ventilation issues. Swarms of mosquitos thrived in dank canals and sewers until changes arrived later. The population reached nearly 132,000 by 1870 according to census data. Military forces supporting infrastructure expanded dramatically from early war days onward.

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• 4. Medical Care And Humanitarian Efforts

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  More than twenty thousand injured or ill soldiers received treatment in hospitals across the capital. Patients traveled to the city via Long Bridge or steamboat at the Wharf for care. The U.S. Patent Office served as one temporary hospital location alongside the Capitol itself. Armory Square General Hospital housed patients including those in Ward K. Carver General Hospital Campbell General Hospital Columbia General Hospital Columbian General Hospital Douglas General Hospital Emory General Hospital Finley General Hospital Freedman General Hospital Harewood General Hospital Judiciary Square General Hospital Kalorama General Hospital Lincoln General Hospital Mount Pleasant General Hospital Ricord General Hospital Stanton General Hospital Seminary General Hospital Stone General Hospital all provided services. Clara Barton founded the American Red Cross while Dorothea Dix served as superintendent of female nurses. Louisa May Alcott worked at the Union Hospital in Georgetown during her service. Walt Whitman published his poem The Wound-Dresser after volunteering in 1865. The United States Sanitary Commission maintained a significant presence throughout Washington. The United States Christian Commission and other relief agencies operated extensively here. The Freedman's Hospital opened in 1862 to serve freed slaves specifically.

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• 5. The Assassination And Martial Law

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  John Wilkes Booth shot Abraham Lincoln inside Ford's Theater on the 14th of April 1865. The president died at 7:22 the next morning in the house across the street. Secretary Edwin M. Stanton declared Now he belongs to the ages following the death. Most major roads and bridges closed immediately under martial law orders from Stanton. Scores of residents and workers faced questioning during the growing investigation. Some individuals were detained or arrested for suspicion of aiding assassins. Booth escaped the city despite sentries being unaware of the assassination initially. Lewis Powell attacked Secretary of State William Henry Seward but Seward survived. Thousands stood in long queues for hours to glimpse Lincoln's body displayed in the Capitol rotunda. Hotels and restaurants filled to capacity bringing unexpected windfalls to owners. The trial and execution of several conspirators occurred within Washington afterward. The city became once again the center of national media attention during these events.

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• 6. Victory Parades And Public Morale

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  Andrew Johnson declared the rebellion virtually ended on the 9th of May 1865. Three leading Union armies traveled to Washington to participate in a formal review procession. The Army of the Potomac led by General George Gordon Meade paraded first on May 23. Their procession stretched seven miles through city streets past the White House reviewing stand. Crowds sang patriotic songs as columns passed senior military leaders and government officials waiting there. William T. Sherman led sixty-five thousand men of the Army of Tennessee and Army of Georgia along streets the following day. Cheering crowds watched the massive parade while officers renewed acquaintances after years apart. Infantrymen sometimes engaged in verbal sparring over which army was superior in taverns. Both armies disbanded within a week after celebrations concluded. Volunteer regiments and batteries were sent home to be mustered out of service shortly thereafter. The mood shifted from mourning since the assassination to gaiety and celebration throughout the capital.

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