V-2 rocket
The V-2 rocket, designated Aggregat-4 by its creators, emerged from a specific moment in late 1936 when Wernher von Braun and Walter Riedel began designing a much larger rocket. This project relied on a projected thrust engine to meet military requirements set by artillery captain Walter Dornberger. The German Army demanded a one-ton payload with a range of 172 miles that could be transported by road vehicles. By the end of 1934, von Braun's group had already launched multiple rockets reaching heights of 850 meters and 1,500 meters respectively. The A-4 design process faced significant delays due to unfavorable aerodynamic stability testing of the earlier A-3 model in July 1936. Hitler initially showed little interest when shown tests of rocket motors in 1939, but he later authorized large-scale deployment after being impressed by developer enthusiasm. An extensive series of test firings of the A-5 scale test model led to the order for A-4 construction between 1938 and 1939. The first successful test flight occurred on the 3rd of October 1942, reaching an altitude of 174 kilometers. On that day, Walter Dornberger declared at a meeting at Peenemünde that the development was practically complete. Despite this declaration, a complete parts list remained unavailable even by mid-1944. The program consumed a third of Germany's fuel alcohol production and major portions of other critical technologies. Adolf Hitler ordered mass production on the 22nd of December 1942, expecting final technical data by July 1943. Operation Hydra attacked Peenemünde in August 1943, causing serious damage to works and killing 735 lives including Dr. Thiel and his family. Production eventually moved to the underground Mittelwerk facility where V-1 and V-2 weapons were built with forced labor.
The A-4 used a liquid-fuel propulsion system combining 75% ethanol and 25% water mixture called B-Stoff with liquid oxygen known as A-Stoff. Water reduced flame temperature and acted as coolant by turning to steam while augmenting thrust and reducing thermal stress. Rudolf Hermann's supersonic wind tunnel measured aerodynamic characteristics using a model within a 40 square centimeter chamber. Tests were conducted on the 8th of August 1940 using a Mach 1.86 blowdown nozzle followed by tests at Mach numbers 1.56 and 2.5 after the 24th of September 1940. At launch the A-4 propelled itself for up to 65 seconds before continuing on a ballistic free-fall trajectory. The rocket reached heights of 174 kilometers or 264,000 feet after shutting off the engine. Fuel and oxidizer pumps were driven by a steam turbine fueled by decomposition of concentrated hydrogen peroxide facilitated by sodium permanganate catalyst. Both alcohol and oxygen tanks were constructed from aluminum-magnesium alloy. The turbopump rotated at 4,000 rpm forcing fuel mixture and oxygen into the combustion chamber at 125 liters per second. Ignition occurred via a spinning electrical igniter producing eight tons of thrust during preliminary stage before increasing to 25 tons. Combustion gases exited the chamber at 2,000 meters per second speed. The oxygen to fuel ratio was 1.0:0.85 at 25 tons of thrust with thrust increasing to 29 tons as ambient pressure decreased. Dr. Thiel's 25 ton motor design relied on pump feeding rather than earlier pressure-fed designs using centrifugal injection. Film cooling admitted alcohol through four rings of small perforations in the mushroom-shaped injection head. The combustion chamber shortened from 6 to 1-foot length while being made more spherical. Eighteen injection heads arranged in two concentric circles at the head of thick sheet-steel chamber created the final 25 ton motor. Warheads contained 730 kilograms of amatol explosive detonated by electric contact fuze. A protective layer of glass wool prevented ice formation on fuel tanks which had held 4,000 liters of ethyl alcohol and 3,000 liters of oxygen.
The V-2s were constructed at the Mittelwerk site by prisoners from Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp where 20,000 prisoners died. SS General Hans Kammler originated the idea of using concentration camp prisoners as slave laborers for the rocket program. More people died manufacturing the V-2 than were killed by its deployment. Production began moving to underground facilities after Operation Hydra destroyed surface works in August 1943. Saur planned to build 2,000 rockets per month between existing factories and Nordhausen Mittelwerk factory. Alcohol production depended upon potato harvest cycles affecting overall output. By late 1944, average monthly production reached 600 to 700 units producing 5,789 verifiable Mittelwerk models plus 150 to 200 previous test models built at Peenemünde. The largest loss of life by a single rocket attack during the war came on the 16th of December 1944 when roof of crowded Cine Rex was struck leaving 567 dead and 291 injured. An estimated 2,754 civilians were killed in London by V-2 attacks with another 6,523 injured representing two people killed per V-2 rocket. The death toll did not meet Nazi expectations as early usage lacked perfect accuracy with many rockets misdirected. Accuracy increased during war particularly for batteries where radio guide beam system was used. Missile strikes hitting targets could cause large numbers of deaths including 160 killed and 108 seriously injured in one explosion at 12:26 pm on the 25th of November 1944 at Woolworth's department store in New Cross south-east London. British intelligence sent false reports via Double-Cross System implying rockets over-shoot target by miles causing more than half of V-2s aimed at London to land short. Most landed on less-heavily populated areas in Kent due to erroneous recalibration. For remainder of war British intelligence maintained ruse sending bogus reports claiming failed rockets striking capital with heavy loss of life.
Combat operations commenced in September 1944 when training Batterie 444 deployed against Paris which Allies had liberated less than two weeks earlier. On the 8th of September a single rocket launched at Paris caused modest damage near Porte d'Italie. Two more launches followed including one from The Hague against London on same day at 6:43 pm first landing at Staveley Road Chiswick killing 63-year-old Mrs. Ada Harrison three-year-old Rosemary Clarke and Sapper Bernard Browning. One that hit Epping caused no casualties. German government finally announced V-2 on the 8th of November 1944 only then did Winston Churchill inform Parliament world England under rocket attack for last few weeks. Positions of German launch units changed multiple times with Artillerie Init 444 arriving southwest Netherlands Zeeland in September 1944. From field near village Serooskerke five V-2s launched 15 and the 16th of September with one successful and one failed launch 18th. That same date transport carrying missile took wrong turn ending up in Serooskerke itself giving villager opportunity to surreptitiously take photographs smuggled to London by Dutch Resistance. Soon after unit moved woods near Rijs Gaasterland northwest Netherlands ensuring technology not captured by Allies. From Gaasterland V-2s launched against Ipswich Norwich from the 25th of September London being out of range. Because their inaccuracy these V-2s did not hit target cities. Only London and Antwerp remained designated targets ordered by Adolf Hitler himself targeting Antwerp period 12 to the 20th of October before unit moved to The Hague. During succeeding months about 3,172 V-2 rockets fired at Belgium United Kingdom France Netherlands Germany. Belgium received 1,664 including Antwerp 1,610 Liège 27 Hasselt 13 Tournai 9 Mons 3 Diest 2. United Kingdom received 1,402 including London 1,358 Norwich 43 Ipswich 1. France received 76 including Lille 25 Paris 22 Tourcoing 19 Arras 6 Cambrai 4. Netherlands received 19 Maastricht 19. Germany received 11 Remagen Ludendorff Bridge 11. Antwerp targeted large number attacks October 1944 through virtual end war March 1945 leaving 1,736 dead 4,500 injured greater Antwerp. Thousands buildings damaged destroyed city struck 590 direct hits. Hitler hope Port Antwerp dock gates hit port put action achieved.
Unlike V-1 flying bomb V-2 speed trajectory made practically invulnerable anti-aircraft guns fighters dropping altitude of 174 kilometers up three times speed sound sea level approximately 3,500 miles per hour. Threat code-named Big Ben great enough efforts made seek countermeasures situation similar pre-war concerns manned bombers resulting solution formation Crossbow Committee collect examine develop countermeasures. Early on believed V-2 employed some form radio guidance belief persisted despite several rockets examined without discovering anything like radio receiver. This resulted efforts jam non-existent guidance system as early September 1944 using ground air-based jammers flying over UK. In October group sent jam missiles during launch. By December clear systems not having obvious effect jamming efforts ended. General Frederick Alfred Pile commander Anti-Aircraft Command studied problem proposed enough anti-aircraft guns available produce barrage fire rocket path provided reasonable prediction trajectory. First estimates suggested 320,000 shells fired each rocket about 2% expected fall back ground unexploded containing almost 90 tons explosives causing far more damage missile. At the 25th of August 1944 meeting Crossbow Committee concept rejected. Pile continued studying problem returned proposal fire only 150 shells single rocket those shells using new fuse greatly reduce number falling Earth unexploded. Some low-level analysis suggested successful against 1 in 50 rockets provided accurate trajectories forwarded gunners time. Work basic concept continued developed plan deploy large number guns Hyde Park provided pre-configured firing data grids London area. After trajectory determined guns aim fire between 60 and 500 rounds. At Crossbow meeting the 15th of January 1945 Pile updated plan presented strong advocacy Roderic Hill Charles Drummond Ellis. However Committee suggested test performed technique tracking missiles sufficient accuracy yet developed. By March changed significantly with 81% incoming missiles correctly allotted grid square fell one beside it. At the 26th of March meeting Pile directed subcommittee RV Jones Ellis further develop statistics. Three days team returned report stating if guns fired 2,000 rounds missile 1 in 60 chance shooting down. Plans operational test began but Pile later put Monty beat us attacks ended Allied capture launching areas. With Germans no longer control part continent capable striking London they began targeting Antwerp plans made move Pile system protect city war ended before anything done.
At end war competition began United States USSR retrieve many V-2 rockets staff possible. Three hundred rail-car loads V-2s parts captured shipped United States 126 principal designers including Wernher von Braun Walter Dornberger captives Americans. Von Braun brother Magnus von Braun seven others decided surrender United States military Operation Paperclip ensure not captured advancing Soviets shot dead Nazis prevent capture. After Nazi defeat German engineers relocated United States USSR France United Kingdom further developed V-2 rocket military civilian purposes. V-2 rocket laid foundation liquid fuel missiles space launchers used later. U.S. Government delivered German mechanization equations guidance navigation control systems advanced development concept vehicles U.S. defense contractors analysis. During 1950s some documents useful U.S. contractors developing direction cosine matrix transformations inertial navigation architecture concepts applied early U.S. programs Atlas Minuteman guidance systems Navy Subs Inertial Navigation System. Committee formed military civilian scientists review payload proposals reassembled V-2 rockets. By January 1946 U.S. Army Ordnance Corps invited civilian scientists engineers participate developing space research program using V-2. Committee initially named V2 Rocket Panel then V2 Upper Atmosphere Research Panel finally Upper Atmosphere Rocket Research Panel. Resulted eclectic array experiments flew V-2s helped prepare American manned space exploration. Devices sent aloft sample air levels determine atmospheric pressures see gases present. Other instruments measured level cosmic radiation. Only 68 percent V-2 trials considered successful. On the 29th of May 1947 Modified V-2 had error guidance landed near Juarez Mexico causing international incident. U.S. Navy attempted launch German V-2 rocket sea one test launch aircraft carrier USS Midway performed the 6th of September 1947 part Navy Operation Sandy. Test launch partial success V-2 went off pad splashed down ocean only some 30 miles from carrier. Launch setup Midway deck notable used foldaway arms prevent missile falling over. Arms pulled away just engine ignited releasing missile. Setup may look similar R-7 Semyorka launch procedure case R-7 trusses hold full weight rocket rather reacting side forces. PGM-11 Redstone rocket direct descendant V-2. USSR captured number V-2s staff letting stay Germany time first work contracts signed middle 1945. During October 1946 part Operation Osoaviakhim obliged relocate Branch 1 NII-88 Gorodomlya Island Lake Seliger Helmut Gröttrup directed group 150 engineers. In October 1947 group German scientists supported USSR launching rebuilt V-2s Kapustin Yar. German team indirectly overseen Sergei Korolev leaders Soviet rocketry program. First Soviet missile R-1 duplicate V-2 manufactured completely USSR launched first during October 1948. From 1947 end 1950 German team elaborated concepts improvements extended payload range projects G-1 G-2 G-4. German team remained Gorodomlya island as late 1952 1953 parallel Soviet work emphasized larger missiles R-2 R-5 based further developing V-2 technology using ideas German concept studies. Details Soviet achievements unknown German team completely underestimated Western intelligence until November 1957 satellite Sputnik 1 launched successfully orbit Sputnik rocket based R-7 world first intercontinental ballistic missile.
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Common questions
When was the V-2 rocket first successfully test flown?
The first successful test flight of the V-2 rocket occurred on the 3rd of October 1942. This flight reached an altitude of 174 kilometers and marked a key milestone in the development program.
Who designed the V-2 rocket and what were their roles?
Wernher von Braun and Walter Riedel began designing the V-2 rocket designated Aggregat-4 in late 1936. Walter Dornberger set military requirements for the project while Rudolf Hermann measured aerodynamic characteristics using supersonic wind tunnels.
How many people died manufacturing the V-2 rocket at Mittelwerk?
More than 20,000 prisoners died during the construction of the V-2 rocket at the Mittelwerk facility. SS General Hans Kammler originated the plan to use concentration camp prisoners as slave laborers for this production effort.
What date did combat operations with the V-2 rocket begin against Paris?
Combat operations commenced in September 1944 when training Batterie 444 deployed against Paris. A single rocket launched at Paris caused modest damage near Porte d'Italie on the 8th of September 1944.
When was the first Soviet missile based on the V-2 technology launched?
The first Soviet missile R-1 duplicate of the V-2 was manufactured completely in the USSR and launched during October 1948. This launch followed work by German scientists under Helmut Gröttrup who were relocated to the Soviet Union in 1945.