Unification of Italy
In the year 1454, a treaty known as the Italic League appeared to offer a glimmer of unity among Italian states. Yet this fragile peace dissolved quickly into decades of proxy wars between major European powers like France, Spain, and Austria. The Holy Roman Emperor held the title of King of Italy but remained an absentee German-speaking foreigner who never controlled the entire peninsula. This absence allowed Italy to gradually develop into a system of independent city-states rather than a single nation. Southern Italy fell under the long-lasting Kingdom of Sicily or Kingdom of Naples established by the Normans centuries earlier. Central Italy was governed directly by the pope as a temporal kingdom known simply as the Papal States. This political patchwork persisted through the Renaissance until modern nation-states began to rise in the early modern period. Writers like Dante, Petrarch, and Machiavelli expressed opposition to foreign domination during these turbulent times. Machiavelli quoted four verses from Italia Mia in his work The Prince which looked forward to a political leader who would unite Italy to free her from the barbarians.
One of the most influential revolutionary groups formed in southern Italy early in the 19th century was called the Carbonari. These secret political discussion groups closely resembled Freemasonry but maintained a commitment to Italian nationalism without association with Napoleon's government. Conservative governments feared the Carbonari so much that they imposed stiff penalties on men discovered to be members. Despite this repression, the movement survived and continued to be a source of political turmoil in Italy from 1820 until after unification. Giuseppe Mazzini organized a new political society called La Giovine Italia (Young Italy) while living in exile in Marseille. His group adopted mottos such as Dio e Popolo meaning God and People and Unione Forza e Libertà meaning Union Strength and Freedom. Many key intellectual and political leaders operated from exile because successive failed revolutions forced them out of their homeland. Exiles were deeply immersed in European ideas and often hammered away at what Europeans saw as Italian vices like effeminacy and indolence. They called for a masculine response to feminine weaknesses as the basis of national regeneration. Mazzini formulated a program for establishing a free independent and republican nation with Rome as its capital while imprisoned in Genoa.
The First Italian War of Independence began when Charles Albert King of Sardinia declared war on Austria in March 1848. Initial successes occurred at Goito and Peschiera before he was decisively defeated by Radetzky at the Battle of Custoza on the 24th of July. The Second War of Italian Independence started in April 1859 when Count Cavour found an ally in Napoleon III. The Austrians planned to use their army of 140,000 men to beat the Sardinians before French forces could arrive. However Austrian numerical strength was outweighed by ineffectual leadership appointed based on noble lineage rather than military competency. France and Sardinia defeated Austria at the Battle of Solferino forcing negotiations that ended the conflict. Garibaldi led Hunters of the Alps who defeated the Austrians at Varese and Como during this campaign. The Third War of Independence took place in 1866 when Italy allied itself with Prussia against Austria. The Italian army suffered a defeat at Custoza on the 24th of June and the Regia Marina lost the Battle of Lissa on the 20th of July. Yet Garibaldi's volunteers won the Battle of Bezzecca moving toward Trento before being recalled by telegram reading only Obbedisco meaning I obey.
Camillo Benso Count of Cavour provided critical leadership as prime minister starting in 1852. He ran an efficient active government promoting rapid economic modernization while upgrading the administration of the army and financial systems. In 1855 the kingdom became an ally of Britain and France in the Crimean War giving Cavour diplomacy legitimacy in the eyes of great powers. Napoleon III signed a secret alliance with Cavour which provoked Austria into war in April 1859. Cavour called for volunteers to enlist in the Italian liberation effort while negotiating territorial concessions with France. The Treaty of Turin signed on the 24th of March 1860 resulted in Sardinia handing Savoy and Nice over to France. This decision caused the Niçard exodus where a quarter of the Niçard Italians emigrated to Italy. Garibaldi was deeply resentful of this French annexation of his home city but agreed to use his forces elsewhere. Cavour terrified of provoking war with France persuaded Garibaldi to focus on Sicilian rebellions instead. The Sardinian army marched through Papal States ignoring political will to reach Naples without attacking Rome directly.
On the 17th of March 1861 Parliament proclaimed Victor Emmanuel King of Italy in Turin. Three months later Count Cavour died having seen his life's work nearly completed before he could finalize all arrangements. He purportedly said Italy is made All is safe when given last rites. The national capital moved from Turin to Florence in 1865 creating disturbances that forced the king to leave his old capital hastily. Rome remained outside the new kingdom despite being declared its capital on the 27th of March 1861. King Victor Emmanuel II received the epithet Father of the Fatherland borrowing from the Latin title Pater Patriae used by Roman emperors. Diplomatic relations improved as United Kingdom Swiss Confederation and United States recognized the new state between March and April 1861. France negotiated presence of troops in Rome while recognizing the Kingdom of Italy on the 15th of June shortly after Cavour's death. Portugal Greece Ottoman Empire and Scandinavian countries followed suit in recognition during the summer of 1861.
From spring 1860 to summer 1861 Piedmontese parliament faced a major challenge governing southern regions frequently described by northern correspondents as corrupt barbaric and uncivilized. Northern Italian letters deemed southern Italy so far from ideas of progress and civilization inducing parliament to choose rule by force over investigation. This representation of south as land of barbarism provided justification for implementing superior more civilized Piedmontese morality. The first decade saw savage insurrections in Sicily and Naples region involving mixture of spontaneous peasant movement and Bourbon-clerical reaction directed by old authorities. Economist Francesco Saverio Nitti criticized newly created state for not considering substantial economic differences between north free-market economy and south protectionist economy. When kingdom extended free-market economy to rest of country south collapsed under weight of northern policies causing severe weakness of national unity. Politician Gaetano Salvemini noted corruption and organized crime flourished due to lack of understanding and action by politicians. Marxist theorist Antonio Gramsci criticized unification for limited presence of masses in politics and lack of modern land reform in Italy.
Capture of Rome occurred on the 20th of September 1870 after French garrison withdrew following outbreak of Franco-Prussian War. Italian Army commanded by General Raffaele Cadorna crossed Papal frontier on the 11th of September advancing slowly toward city hoping peaceful entry could be negotiated. Bersaglieri entered Rome through Porta Pia after cannonade breached Aurelian Walls at three hours duration killing forty-nine Italian soldiers four officers and nineteen papal troops. Plebiscite held on the 2nd of October accepted results by decree of the 9th of October annexing Latium to Kingdom of Italy. Official capital moved from Florence to Rome in July 1871 though many ethnic Italian speakers remained outside borders creating seeds of irredentism. Trentino-Alto Adige Savoyard Corfiot Niçard Swiss Corsican Maltese Istrian and Dalmatian Italians stayed beyond new kingdom boundaries. Austrian census showed Dalmatian Italians formed 12.5% population in 1865 while Istria had 38.1% Italian speakers in 1910. These territories did not join until after World War I culminating in Treaty of Rapallo signed in 1920. Historians suggest referendum in Venetia held under military pressure where mere 0.01% voters voted against annexation.
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Common questions
When did the unification of Italy begin and end?
The unification process began with the First Italian War of Independence in March 1848 and concluded with the Capture of Rome on the 20th of September 1870. This period spans from 1848 to 1870 as defined by the consolidation of Italian states.
Who were the key figures involved in the unification of Italy?
Key figures included King Victor Emmanuel II, Prime Minister Camillo Benso Count of Cavour, revolutionary Giuseppe Mazzini, and military leader Giuseppe Garibaldi. These leaders organized political societies like La Giovine Italia and led armies during wars against Austria.
What was the role of the Carbonari in the unification of Italy?
The Carbonari formed a secret political discussion group in southern Italy early in the 19th century that promoted Italian nationalism without association with Napoleon's government. They maintained commitment to national unity despite stiff penalties imposed by conservative governments and caused political turmoil from 1820 until after unification.
How many wars occurred during the unification of Italy?
Three major wars took place including the First Italian War of Independence starting in 1848, the Second War of Italian Independence beginning in April 1859, and the Third War of Independence occurring in 1866. These conflicts involved battles such as Custoza, Solferino, and Lissa between Italian forces and Austria.
When did Rome become the capital of unified Italy?
Rome became the official capital when it was captured on the 20th of September 1870 following the withdrawal of French garrison troops. The capital officially moved from Florence to Rome in July 1871 after a plebiscite held on the 2nd of October accepted annexation of Latium.