Turkification
The word Turkification emerged in the Greek language during the 1300s as εκτουρκισμός or τούρκεμα. Emile Louis Jean Legrand recorded this term in his 1899 work Chrestomathie grecque moderne on page 479. He defined it literally as becoming a Turk. The verb form τουρκεύω meant to Turkify, to become Muslim, or to become Turk. Prior to the 20th century, Anatolian, Balkan, Caucasian, and Middle Eastern regions were said to undergo Ottomanization instead. This older term described cultural shifts under the Ottoman Empire without emphasizing ethnic identity. Turkish nationalism changed how people used these words after the rise of modern statehood in the early 1900s. Scholars now distinguish between broad Turkic influence and specific policies targeting non-Turkish groups within Turkey. The shift from Ottomanization to Turkification reflects changing political goals rather than just linguistic evolution.
By the year 600 AD, migration of Turkic tribes from Inner Asia began altering Central Asia. Iranian peoples living there started adopting Turkic languages and cultures over centuries. By 750, the city of Kashgar underwent Turkification through the Qarluq Turks. These Qarluqs became ancestors of the Karakhanids who also Islamized the local population. The Iranian language Khwarezm eventually died out due to this process. Today Central Asia consists mainly of Turkic ethnic groups except for Persian-speaking Tajiks. Mahmud al-Kashgari wrote that people between Bukhara and Samarkand were Turkified Sogdians whom he called Sogdak. Centuries ago native inhabitants were entirely Iranian before these migrations reshaped demographics. Hooman Peimani notes in his 2009 book Conflict and Security in Central Asia and the Caucasus that this long complex process started at least 1400 years ago. Tajiks remain the only group surviving without full Turkification despite arguments trying to deny their Iranian identity.
The Battle of Manzikert triggered swift changes in Anatolia's ethnic features during the eleventh century. Before Turkish arrival, Byzantine Greeks formed the bulk of the region's population from the fifth century until the state fell in the fifteenth century. After subordination of the First Bulgarian Empire in 1018, much of its army resettled in Eastern Anatolia. Byzantine authorities moved Armenian nobility throughout western Anatolia leading to numerous generals and emperors of Armenian extraction. War between Turks and Byzantines caused deaths while others were enslaved or removed. Despite suffering Christian populations remained an overwhelming majority fifty years after Manzikert. Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi recorded 200,000 Turkmen tents in Denizli and surrounding areas plus 30,000 in Bolu and 100,000 in Kastamonu. Matthew of Edessa attested evidence of kidnapping Christian children and raising them as Turks. Intermarriage occurred mostly between Turkish men and Christian women producing Mixovarvaroi raised as Muslims. These unions played roles in diminishing Christian presence transitioning regions from Greek-Christian to Turkish-Muslim identities.
Ziya Gökalp believed a modern state must become homogeneous regarding culture religion and national identity. The eighteenth article of the Ottoman Constitution of 1876 declared Turkish the sole official language allowing only Turkish speakers government employment. Young Turks assumed power in 1909 adding new layers to Turkification policies. They imposed Turkish administration courts and education where Arabic-speaking majorities existed. Turkish teachers replaced Arabic instructors at schools while postal services operated exclusively in Turkish. Rashid Rida advocated Arabic against Turkish before the Young Turk Revolution of 1908. Tahrir al-Jazairi convinced Midhat Pasha to adopt Arabic instruction at state schools though Sultan Abdul Hamid II changed this to Turkish in 1885. Gerard Lowther described British ambassador views comparing efforts to pounding non-Turkish elements in a Turkish mortar. Uğur Üngör notes Muslim Kurds and Sephardi Jews considered slightly more Turkifiable than others. These social engineering policies culminated in Armenian and Assyrian genocides during World War One. Orphanages established throughout the empire gave Armenian children Arabic or Turkish names starting a campaign in 1916 resettle Kurdish tribes not exceeding ten percent local population.
Population estimates placed Asia Minor and Balkans including Greece at 10.7 million people around 600 AD. Western Asian genomes show great influence from early agricultural populations according to ancient DNA data covering Paleolithic Neolithic Bronze Age periods. First whole genome sequencing study conducted in Turkey completed in 2014. Turkish genomic variation looks most similar to South European populations such as southern Italians. Earlier 2011 reviews suggested small-scale irregular punctuated migration events caused cultural changes among diverse autochthonous inhabitants explaining modern profiles. Genetic variation within Central Asia remains poorly characterized though Western Asian populations may closely relate to eastern groups. Data indicates later population movements like Turkic speakers contributed significantly alongside earlier agricultural influences. These findings help understand how migration impacted contemporary Turkish demographics compared to ancient populations. The process involved gradual shifts rather than single massive replacements across centuries.
Common questions
When did the word Turkification emerge in Greek language?
The word Turkification emerged in the Greek language during the 1300s as εκτουρκισμός or τούρκεμα. Emile Louis Jean Legrand recorded this term in his 1899 work Chrestomathie grecque moderne on page 479.
How old is the process of Turkification in Central Asia according to Hooman Peimani?
Hooman Peimani notes that this long complex process started at least 1400 years ago. By the year 600 AD migration of Turkic tribes from Inner Asia began altering Central Asia and Iranian peoples living there started adopting Turkic languages and cultures over centuries.
What event triggered swift changes in Anatolia's ethnic features during the eleventh century?
The Battle of Manzikert triggered swift changes in Anatolia's ethnic features during the eleventh century. Before Turkish arrival Byzantine Greeks formed the bulk of the region's population from the fifth century until the state fell in the fifteenth century.
Which law reserved professions like lawyer construction worker hairdresser messenger to Turkish citizens in June 1932?
Law 2007 of the 11th of June 1932 reserved professions like lawyer construction worker hairdresser messenger to Turkish citizens banning foreigners opening shops rural areas. This legislation was part of broader social engineering policies implemented by the Republic of Turkey founded in 1923.
When did the Civil Servants Law effective date allow Turks only excluding Armenians and Greeks from government jobs?
Civil Servants Law effective the 18th of March 1926 allowed Turks only excluding Armenians and Greeks from government jobs. The Republic of Turkey adopted nationalism and secularism as founding principles when it was founded in 1923.