Sulla's civil war

• 1. Prelude And Power Struggle

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  In the spring of 83 BC, Sulla landed his army in two divisions at Brundisium and Tarentum. This military landing marked the beginning of a brutal civil war that would reshape Rome. Before this moment, Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna had wrested control from Sulla's supporters during his absence. They ordered soldiers to kill leading Sullan figures including Octavius. Their heads were exhibited in the Forum for days. Some 100 Roman nobles died in these purges. Marius declared all of Sulla's reforms invalid and exiled him officially. He then elected himself consul alongside Cinna for the year 86 BC. Marius died just a fortnight after taking office leaving Cinna alone in charge. The political vacuum allowed chaos to spread through the Republic. Flaccus was sent with an army to relieve Sulla but his second-in-command Fimbria murdered him instead. Many of Flaccus' troops deserted to join Sulla before he could move north.

• 2. Sullan Invasion Of Italy

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  As soon as Sulla set foot on Italian soil, outlawed nobles flocked to his banner. Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius raised an independent army while Marcus Licinius Crassus did the same. Lucius Marcius Philippus secured Sardinia for the Sullan cause. Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus raised three legions from his father's veterans in Picenum. When Pompey met Sulla he addressed him as Imperator. Publius Cornelius Cethegus joined the Sullan faction despite being a former Marian supporter. Norbanus blocked Sulla's advance at Canusium becoming the first to engage him directly. Sulla inflicted a crushing defeat where Norbanus lost six thousand men to Sulla's seventy. Norbanus withdrew to Capua only to be stopped by Scipio Asiaticus. Scipio welcomed negotiations but his legate Quintus Sertorius captured Suessa breaking trust. Scipio's troops defected en masse swelling Sulla's ranks. The consul and his son were found cowering in tents and released after promising never to fight again. Scipio broke this promise immediately returning to Carbo in Rome. Sulla defeated Norbanus a second time before marching toward the capital.

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• 3. Decisive Battles Of Eighty Two BC

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  Marius the Younger marched his army south-east into Campania meeting Sulla's forces near Signia. While Sulla's men dug ditches and threw up earthworks Marius attacked suddenly. Sulla's veterans stuck their pila into the ground creating makeshift barricades. They drew swords and organized battle lines before counter-attacking. Five cohorts of foot soldiers and two of horse deserted to Sulla causing general collapse. Marius lost 28,000 men while Sulla claimed only 23 casualties. Marius retreated with 7,000 men to Praeneste but townspeople shut gates as Sullan forces approached. He had to be hoisted in on a rope while hundreds trapped between walls were massacred. Damasippus ordered killings of Sullan sympathizers inside Rome including Pontifex Maximus Quintus Mucius Scaevola murdered in the Temple of Vesta. Bodies were thrown into the Tiber River. Metellus and Pompey fought Carbo in northern Italy defeating Carrinas at the River Aesis. Neapolis fell through treachery with virtually the whole population massacred. Sulla surrounded Rome and took it without a fight as remaining Marians fled. The Samnite general Pontius Telesinus and Lucanian Marcus Lamponius commanded large armies trying to break the siege at Praeneste. They decided to march on Rome instead meeting Sulla outside its walls at the Battle of the Colline Gate. An estimated 50,000 men lost their lives that day.

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• 4. Mopping Up Resistance

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  Damasippus Carrinas and Censorinus were executed the following day after the battle. Their heads and those of Lamponius and Telesinus were displayed to Marius at Praeneste. Marius tried escaping through drains under Praeneste but failed committing suicide. The town surrendered with most defenders executed though Roman citizens were spared. Sulla campaigned through Italy destroying Marian strongholds like Aesernia Norba and Volterrae. Pompey sailed to Sicily where Perpenna fled leaving six legions behind. Carbo was arrested and sentenced to death by Pompey who treated him with insolence. Domitius Ahenobarbus held Africa for the Marians until Pompey defeated him at Utica. King Hiarbas of Numidia was captured and executed while Hiempsal II restored to throne. Quintus Sertorius led resistance in Spain before being expelled from Iberian peninsula. Norbanus abandoned his army fleeing Italy after Lucanians defected to Sulla. Ariminum went over to Sulla as well. Crassus and Pompey severely defeated Carrinas killing 3,000 soldiers forcing him to Spoletium. Pompey ambushed reinforcements on their way to Carrinas killing 2,000 more men. Carbo lost heart and fled to Sicily after Damasippus failed to reach Marius.

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• 5. The Proscriptions And Purge

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  Sulla immediately proscribed eighty persons without consulting any magistrate causing general murmur among people. He let one day pass then proscribed two hundred twenty more followed by another group three days later. In a harangue he stated he had proscribed all he could think of adding that those escaping memory would be targeted later. Some 1,500 nobles were ordered executed though estimates suggest up to 9,000 died overall. The purge lasted several months with helping or sheltering proscribed individuals punishable by death. Killing a proscribed person brought rewards while family members faced punishment too. Slaves were not excluded from receiving rewards for killing masters. Husbands were butchered in arms of wives while sons died in mothers' embrace. Most victims were killed for property which was confiscated and auctioned off. Proceeds made Sulla wealthier than before. Sons and grandsons of proscribed were banned from political office for over thirty years. Young Gaius Julius Caesar became a target as Cinna's son-in-law but fled the city. Relatives saved him despite Sulla noting regret at sparing such an ambitious man. Suetonius records Sulla warning pleaders that Caesar would become danger saying many Mariuses existed within him.

• 6. Constitutional Reforms

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  Sulla retained earlier reforms requiring senatorial approval before bills reached Plebeian Council. He restored Servian organization to Centuriate Assembly strengthening aristocratic control. As patrician ineligible for Plebeian Tribune he thoroughly disliked the office. Tribunes lost power to initiate legislation through his changes to Plebeian Council. Ex-tribunes could never hold other offices ending careers after election. Power to veto Senate acts revoked though protection of individual citizens remained intact. Number of magistrates elected yearly increased allowing Senate size to grow from 300 to 600 senators. Newly elected quaestors gained automatic membership removing need for censor lists. Control of courts transferred from equites to senators increasing their authority. Cursus honorum codified requiring specific age and experience levels before running for office. Ten-year waiting period enforced before re-election to any office preventing future generals seizing power. Consuls and praetors served in Rome during year then commanded provincial armies as governors afterward. Pomerium sacred boundary expanded demonstrating absolute power unchanged since kings' times. Majestas laws redefined treason while Senate regulations regulated future governance. Sulla's reforms looked backward often repassing former laws yet established new systems for centuries.

• 7. Resignation And Legacy

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  Near end of 81 BC true to traditionalist sentiments Sulla resigned dictatorship disbanding legions. He re-established normal consular government standing for office with Metellus Pius winning election for 80 BC. Lictors dismissed walking unguarded offering account of actions to any citizen. Julius Caesar later mocked this resignation calling it arrogant public utterance. Titus Ampius recorded Sulla claiming state was nothing mere name without body or form. He stated he did not know A B C when laying down dictatorship. Men ought now be more circumspect addressing him regarding his word as law. When soothsayer reported direful inwards without heart he said they would be favorable when wishing it. State should not be regarded as portent if beast has no heart. His legacy included decades-long reconstruction of damaged Italian towns like Forlì Forum Livii. Many cities heavily damaged by Sullan forces required generations to rebuild. Proscriptions eliminated political opposition enriching supporters through property confiscations. Constitutional changes strengthened Senate authority preventing future civil wars temporarily. Resignation demonstrated unusual power relinquishment though impact remained profound across Roman history.