State of Katanga

• 1. Colonial Mining Foundations

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  In 1906, the Union Minière du Haut-Katanga company received exclusive rights to mine copper in Katanga. The principal shareholders included the Comité Spécial du Katanga and the Société Générale de Belgique. The Belgian state held the largest share of the Comité Spécial de Katanga. By the 1950s, about 32,000 Belgian settlers lived in Katanga. This made it the province with the most Belgian residents. Thirty-three point seven percent of Congo revenue came from copper sales. Leaders of the Congolese Independence movement viewed ownership as critical. Belgium refused to relinquish its stake until 1967. In January 1959, independence was announced for June 1960. Starting March 1960, UMHK financially supported CONAKAT. Moïse Tshombe accepted bribes to advocate favorable policies. The province linked economically to the Central African Federation. White settlers discussed plans for Katanga to join that federation after independence. Etienne Harford told Sir Roy Welensky in March 1960 that Belgium wanted a political association. Welensky expected Katanga to break away and join the Federation.

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• 2. The July Secession Declaration

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  On the 11th of July 1960, Moïse Tshombe announced Katanga's secession from Congo-Léopoldville. He accused the central government of communist leanings and dictatorial rule. Union Minière du Haut-Katanga gave Tshombe an advance of 1,250 million Belgian francs. This sum equaled approximately 25 million US dollars at the time. Tshombe asked Belgian Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens for help. A newly appointed commander of the Élisabethville military garrison arrived in the city. Katangese authorities detained and expelled him immediately. He flew to Luluabourg to inform President Joseph Kasa-Vubu and Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba. Godefroid Munongo denied them permission to land at the airport. Lumumba was not allowed to enter the territory. They returned to Luluabourg in frustration. On the 16th of July 1960, Eyskens extended de facto recognition to Katanga. The Mission Technique Belge formed on the 22nd of July to assist with arms and advisers. Colonel Norbert Muke became the new commander. He organized the Katanga Gendarmerie using Belgian officers as seconded military advisers. Baluba populations actively opposed independence in northern districts. Southern residents were never directly consulted on the matter.

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• 3. Belgian Military Intervention

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  Brussels provided technical, financial, and military aid to keep Katanga stable. One thousand one hundred thirty-three Belgian technicians served in civil service roles. One hundred fourteen Belgian Army officers commanded the Force Publique. One hundred seventeen non-commissioned officers also led the force. Fifty-eight Belgian civil servants worked within ministries. Between the 4th of August and the 8th of August 1960, Pierre Kauch visited Katanga for the National Bank of Belgium. His goal was establishing a central bank for the breakaway state. Most Belgian military personnel withdrew from Katanga in September 1960. Over 200 stayed behind as paid mercenaries serving with the nation's Gendarmes. Several remained at large until 1963 after shedding uniforms for civilian dress. Political advisers and diplomatic ministers continued their work there too. Upon ONUC arrival, they obstructed peacekeeping efforts. Tshombe himself strengthened this view over time. Léopoldville demanded UN use military advantage to remove his regime. The Security Council reaffirmed that ONUC would not be party to internal disputes. Swedish forces entered Élisabethville on the 12th of August 1960. An Irish platoon repairing a bridge in Niemba faced an ambush on the 8th of November. Nine men died during that incident.

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• 4. United Nations Peacekeeping Struggles

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  The UN Security Council adopted Resolution 143 on the 14th of July 1960. It called upon Belgium to remove its military personnel immediately. Lumumba threatened to seek Soviet help if troops did not leave within two days. First UN troops arrived the next day. Disagreement arose instantly between Lumumba and the UN over the new force mandate. Lumumba wanted to subdue Katanga by force using UN peacekeepers. Dag Hammarskjöld interpreted the resolution differently. He stated Article 2 of the United Nations Charter forbade intervention. Security Council Resolution 145 passed on the 22nd of July affirmed Congo should remain unitary. Resolution 146 on the 9th of August allowed UN forces to enter Katanga but forbade influencing internal conflict outcomes. Baudouin tried replacing Eyskens with Paul Van Zeeland at the beginning of August. Paul-Henri Spaak declined serving as Foreign Minister in the new government. The first such personnel, largely Swedish forces, entered Élisabethville on the 12th of August 1960. An Irish Army platoon sent to repair a bridge in Niemba was ambushed on the 8th of November. Nine men died during that incident.

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• 5. Mercenary Warfare Dynamics

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  Tshombe began importing foreign mercenaries from neighboring states in February 1961. Nearly 500 British, Rhodesian, French, and South African irregulars replaced earlier illegal combatants. Many received command assignments within the Gendarmes. A pro-Tshombe unit known as the International Company formed. It consisted chiefly of White South African fighters. Professional career soldiers who fought in the Algerian War led para commando training programs. On the 30th of March, reports claimed mercenaries included Belgians, Italians, and 100 South Africans. Serious fighting broke out when Tshombe incited civilians and white mercenaries to attack UN forces. The Secretary-General criticized Belgian mercenaries for their service on the 5th of April 1961. Hostilities resumed three days later when Belgian and South African Gendarmes assaulted Kabalo. At least 30 mercenaries were disarmed and captured. Katangese authorities offered a conditional ceasefire which ONUC rejected immediately. Eighteen days later, an eight-day battle resulted in eleven UN personnel deaths. Fighter aircraft conducted over 70 sorties against the Katangese Air Force. All but two jets were destroyed on the ground during Operation Grandslam.

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• 6. International Diplomatic Isolation

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  On the 3rd of October 1960, Katanga opened an unrecognized diplomatic mission in New York. Michel Struelens headed this mission using a Belgian passport. He told journalists his goal was telling the Katanga story in the Western Hemisphere. Struelens argued Katanga represented the only barrier against communist influence. The United States refused recognition despite Struelens persuading much of the American right. The ultra-right-wing Liberty Lobby declared support in a pamphlet. Conservative intellectual James Burnham praised Katanga in a column. Liberal circles compared Katanga to Manchukuo, a Japanese colony masquerading as independent. Another mission opened in Paris in December 1960 under Dominique Diur. It functioned primarily as a recruitment office for foreign mercenaries. Activities remained illegal in France. A considerable number of French mercenaries joined including Roger Faulques and Roger Trinquier. In Brussels, Jacques Masangu led another mission recruiting fighters. The Kennedy administration cancelled Struelens's visa intending expulsion. Backing down occurred after Katanga friends raised media uproar in Congress. George Ball made a case to the media that Katanga deserved no American support. He argued most people did not support Tshombe. Belgian officials held real power while Tshombe served as figurehead.

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• 7. Operation Grandslam Conclusion

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  On the 24th of December 1962, ONUC forces clashed with Katangese Gendarmes near an observation post. A helicopter was shot down during the engagement. Tshombe expressed regrets over what appeared a misunderstanding initially. Firing continued on both sides by the 27th of December. Operation Grandslam launched the following day. Peacekeepers marched on Élisabethville to neutralize the Gendarmes. Within three days, Élisabethville fell under UN control. Foreign mercenaries scattered across the region. Fighter aircraft conducted over 70 sorties against the Katangese Air Force. All but two jets were destroyed on the ground. Tshombe escaped his capital threatening a counteroffensive unless attacks stopped. A truce observed until the 1st of January. ONUC personnel assaulted Jadotville despite orders from New York. Katangese forces demolished bridges over the Lufira River. Peacekeepers crossed using debris despite light resistance. Several controversial incidents occurred involving foreign civilians after Jadotville's fall. Two Belgian women died at a road checkpoint fired upon by Indian soldiers. On the 15th of January, Tshombe conceded defeat allowing UN officials into Kolwezi. Remaining mercenaries fled through Angola ignoring scorched earth instructions. Tshombe claimed in a final address that enemy superiority had become overwhelming.

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