North African campaign
On the 11th of June 1940, British forces launched raids against Italian positions in Libya. This action followed Italy's declaration of war on France and the United Kingdom just one day earlier. The initial British advance saw the 11th Hussars cross from Egypt into Libya to capture Fort Capuzzo by the 14th of June. Italian forces responded with a counter-offensive that pushed them into Egypt and captured Sidi Barrani in September. General Archibald Wavell ordered his screening forces to harass the Italians before falling back toward Mersa Matruh. By the 8th of August, Mussolini had ordered the Tenth Army to invade Egypt despite lacking transport and training. The Italian force advanced to Maktila but halted due to supply problems. Graziani ordered his men to dig in around Sidi Barrani and establish fortified camps. On the 9th of December, the British Commonwealth force attacked these forward elements. Over ten weeks, Allied forces destroyed the Italian Tenth Army and reached El Agheila. They took 130,000 prisoners of war during this campaign.
The German Afrika Korps arrived in Tripoli in February 1941 under the command of Erwin Rommel. Hitler ordered this relatively small expeditionary force to reinforce the Italians and block Allied attempts to drive them out. Rommel launched an offensive from El Agheila in March that forced Allied forces back. Leading general officers were captured as the Australian 9th Infantry Division fell back to Tobruk. The front line moved eastward to the Libyan, Egyptian border by the end of April. Axis forces drove the Eighth Army back over the Egyptian border after defeating them at the Battle of Gazala in June. Their advance was stopped only 75 miles from Alexandria in the First Battle of El Alamein. Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery replaced William Gott after the latter died when his aircraft was shot down over Egypt. In late October, the Eighth Army decisively defeated the Italian-German army in the Second Battle of El Alamein. This victory drove Axis forces west and led to the capture of Tripoli in mid-January 1943.
Allied landings began on the 8th of November 1942 and finished on the 16th of November in Vichy-held French North Africa. American and British Commonwealth forces landed with the assumption there would be little resistance. Nevertheless, Vichy French forces put up strong and bloody resistance in Oran and Morocco. A coup d'état by the French resistance succeeded in Algiers on the 8th of November. Generals Mark Clark and Dwight Eisenhower compelled Admiral François Darlan to order cessation of armed resistance on 10, the 11th of November. During Operation Torch, Americans fought German navy vessels in the Naval Battle of Casablanca which ended in an American victory. The Vichy Army in North Africa subsequently joined the Allies. Senior U.S. commanders had strongly opposed the proposed landings before President Roosevelt gave a direct order for them to take precedence. Over half the German Ju 52 transport planes needed to supply Stalingrad were tied up supplying Axis forces in North Africa instead.
By early December 1942, the Eastern Task Force was composed of the British 78th Infantry Division and elements of the US 1st Armored Division. One German and five Italian divisions had been shipped from Europe to Tunisia during this period. The Allies were halted and pushed back after advancing eastwards within 30 miles of Tunis. In the second half of February, the Axis routed the US II Corps at the Battle of Kasserine Pass. By March, the British Eighth Army reached the Tunisian border while Rommel went back to Germany for health reasons. Messe substituted him as commander. The British Eighth Army bypassed the Mareth Line in late March after harsh fighting. First Army launched their main offensive in mid-April to squeeze Axis forces until resistance collapsed. On the 13th of May 1943, Axis forces surrendered yielding over 275,000 prisoners of war. This huge loss greatly reduced the military capacity of the Axis powers.
The US military attaché in Egypt, Bonner Fellers, transmitted reports using the Black Code which the Italians stole in September 1941. He became known to Germans as die gute Quelle or the good source. His detailed reports played a significant role in informing Germans of allied strength between January and June 1942. The Italian Servizio Informazioni Segrete successfully intercepted much radio encrypted signals intelligence from British aircraft traffic. Britain's offensive use of SIGINT was largely negated by Italy's defensive SIGINT during this period. Allied codebreakers read enciphered German message traffic especially that encrypted with the Enigma machine. Ultra intercepts provided valuable information about times and routes of Axis supply shipments across the Mediterranean. It is estimated that 40% to 60% of Axis supply shipping was located and destroyed due to decrypted information. However, historians Vincent P. O'Hara and Enrico Cernuschi claim that intelligence had little impact in stopping Italian convoys reaching North Africa.
Recent historians challenge the view that the North African campaign was often labeled a war without hate. There were indeed many civilians who lived in the region throughout the fighting. The campaign was marked by numerous atrocities and abuses by both Italian and German forces toward local Jewish populations. Berber communities suffered similar treatment at the hands of occupying powers. Arab populations also faced documented abuses during the conflict. Allied prisoners of war endured harsh conditions and mistreatment by Axis captors. Nearly 400,000 Axis and Allied troops were lost, injured or died of disease by the end of the campaign. These human costs extended far beyond battlefield casualties into civilian suffering across Libya, Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, and Algeria.
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Common questions
When did the North African campaign begin and what were the initial actions?
The North African campaign began on the 11th of June 1940 when British forces launched raids against Italian positions in Libya. This action followed Italy's declaration of war on France and the United Kingdom just one day earlier.
Who commanded the German Afrika Korps during the North African campaign?
Erwin Rommel commanded the German Afrika Korps that arrived in Tripoli in February 1941. Hitler ordered this relatively small expeditionary force to reinforce the Italians and block Allied attempts to drive them out.
What was the outcome of Operation Torch in Vichy-held French North Africa?
Allied landings began on the 8th of November 1942 and finished on the 16th of November in Vichy-held French North Africa. Generals Mark Clark and Dwight Eisenhower compelled Admiral François Darlan to order cessation of armed resistance on the 10th and the 11th of November.
How many prisoners of war were captured by Axis forces at the end of the North African campaign?
Axis forces surrendered on the 13th of May 1943 yielding over 275,000 prisoners of war. This huge loss greatly reduced the military capacity of the Axis powers.
Why did intelligence play a significant role in the North African campaign?
Ultra intercepts provided valuable information about times and routes of Axis supply shipments across the Mediterranean. It is estimated that 40% to 60% of Axis supply shipping was located and destroyed due to decrypted information.