Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II
On the 30th of November 1938, Benito Mussolini addressed the Fascist Grand Council with a clear vision for Italy's future. He claimed that his nation needed an outlet for its surplus population and argued it was in other countries' best interests to aid this expansion. The regime sought hegemony across the Mediterranean-Danubian-Balkan region through conquest of an empire stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Strait of Hormuz. Fascists held designs on Albania, Dalmatia, large parts of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and Greece while harking back to the Roman Empire. They also sought to establish protectorates with Austria, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria. Covert motives aimed for Italy to become the dominant power in the Mediterranean capable of challenging France or Britain. This dominance would grant access to both the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Mussolini alleged that Italy was a prisoner in the Mediterranean and had to break the chains of British and French control. Corsica, Cyprus, Gibraltar, Malta, Suez and Tunisia were all targets to be taken. Egypt, France, Greece, Turkey and the United Kingdom had to be challenged through armed conquest. Through this strategy, north and east African colonies would be linked to destroy the prison. Italy could then march either to the Indian Ocean through Sudan and Abyssinia or to the Atlantic by way of French North Africa.
At the Nyon Conference of 1937, Italy and the United Kingdom disclaimed any desire to modify national sovereignty in the Mediterranean area. They agreed to discourage activities liable to impair mutual relations yet Italian diplomatic moves did not reflect this agreement. In July 1937, the British decided that Italy could no longer be regarded as a reliable friend. Preparations began to bring the defenses of the Mediterranean and Red Sea ports up-to-date. In 1938, a weak armored division was established in Egypt while further army and air force reinforcements were dispatched from Britain. With rising tension in Europe, June 1939 saw the United Kingdom establish Middle East Command in Cairo. This command provided centralized authority for British army units across the entire theater. All three branches of the British military became equally responsible for defending the region. The authority of Middle East Command included Aden, British Somaliland, Cyprus, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Greece, Libya, Palestine, Iraq, Sudan, Tanganyika, Transjordan, Uganda and the shores of the Persian Gulf. If necessary, command would extend as far away as the Caucasus and the Indian Ocean. The purpose was to serve as the western bastion of defense for India. It aimed to keep British supply lines open to India and the Far East. The command also sought to keep Middle Eastern oil fields out of Axis hands. Upon establishment, it coordinated with French military forces in the Middle East and Africa. They liaised with the Turkish General Staff and possibly the Greek General Staff. On the 19th of October 1939, the Treaty of Mutual Assistance was signed between the United Kingdom, France and Turkey.
On the 10th of June 1940, Italy declared war on France and the United Kingdom. The next day the British Commonwealth declared war on Italy. The fleets of Italy, France and the United Kingdom began hostilities of the Battle of the Mediterranean. The siege of Malta soon began with the first Italian air attack on the 11th of June. In the Western Desert, Royal Air Force aircraft attacked Italian positions inside Libya. On the 17th of June, Fort Capuzzo was captured by British forces. Mussolini began the Italian invasion of France on the 20th of June just before the end of the Battle of France. During June, the East African Campaign began with Italian attacks though ground combat did not start until July. On the 9th of September, Italian aircraft started preparation bombardments for the invasion of Egypt. Four days later, Italian forces invaded Egypt as far as Sidi Barrani before digging in west of the main British position at Mersa Matruh. In East Africa, after some initial offensive actions, the Italian conquest of British Somaliland began in August and annexed the colony. After crossing the Albanian border, Italian forces began the Greco-Italian War by invading Greece on the 28th of October. The Greek army repulsed the Italian attack and commenced a counter-offensive on the 14th of November which pushed Italian forces back into Albania. When Italy entered the war there were no plans for an invasion of Egypt while France could still resist. When France surrendered, Mussolini gave instructions for his generals to prepare an offensive. On the 10th of August he instructed his forces to be prepared to attack in conjunction with the German invasion of the United Kingdom. While his generals did not believe they were prepared, they were ordered to push forward without any solid objectives.
In April 1941, Axis forces invaded Yugoslavia and captured it within eleven days. They partitioned it among themselves and newly formed client states including the Independent State of Croatia and Nedić's Serbia. In spring 1941, Italy created a Montenegrin client state and annexed most of the Dalmatian coast as the Governorship of Dalmatia. A complex guerrilla uprising of communist-led Partisans commanded by Josip Broz Tito soon broke out. A more ambivalent predominantly Serb paramilitary movement of royalist Chetniks both fought occupying forces and collaborated with them against communists. The Yugoslav partisans eventually gained recognition from Allies as the sole resistance movement. With help from Soviets and Western Allies they turned into a formidable fighting force and successfully liberated the country. Following the Italian invasion on the 28th of October 1940 known as the Greco-Italian War, Greek forces repelled the initial Italian attack. A counter-offensive in March 1941 pushed Italian forces back to mainland Greece. When German invasion Operation Marita began on the 6th of April, bulk of Greek Army was on Albania fighting Italians. Only six Greek divisions were deployed to defend Metaxas Line in case of looming German invasion. German troops invaded Greece from Bulgaria creating a second front. Greece received small reinforcement from British Australian and New Zealand forces in anticipation of German attack. While Italians launched second spring offensive forcing Greeks to retreat back to mainland Greece, Greek army found itself outnumbered defending against both German and Italian forces. As result Metaxas defensive line did not receive adequate troop reinforcements and was quickly overrun by Germans who then outflanked Greek forces at Albanian border forcing their surrender.
In January 1941 political crisis struck Iraq when Rashid Ali resigned as Prime Minister replaced by Taha al-Hashimi. Civil war loomed within the nation. On the 31st of March Regent Prince Abd al-Ilah learned of plot to arrest him and fled Baghdad for RAF Habbaniya. He was flown to Basra and given refuge there. On the 1st of April Rashid Ali along with four senior Army and Air Force officers known as Golden Square seized power via coup d'état. Rashid Ali proclaimed himself Chief of National Defence Government. The Golden Square deposed al-Hashimi and restored Rashid Ali. Ali did not overthrow monarchy but named new Regent to King Faisal II Sherif Sharaf. Leaders of National Defence Government proceeded to arrest many pro-British citizens though many escaped through Amman in Transjordan. New regime planned to refuse further concessions to United Kingdom retain diplomatic links with Fascist Italy and expel prominent pro-British politicians. Plotters considered United Kingdom weak and believed its government would negotiate regardless of legality. On the 17th of April Rashid Ali asked Germany for military assistance in event of war with British. Before coup supporters informed that Germany would recognize independence of Iraq from British Empire. There had also been discussions on war material being sent to support Iraqis and other Arab factions fighting British. On the 6th of May according to Paris Protocols Germany concluded deal with Vichy French government to release war materials including aircraft from sealed stockpiles in French Mandate of Syria.
Malta was one of first targets of Italian army and Regia Aeronautica after Italy entered the war. Air defense of Malta comprised six obsolescent Gloster Gladiator biplanes at start of conflict. After first Italian air attacks it became clear Malta could be defended. In early July Gladiators were reinforced by twelve Hawker Hurricane fighters. Bombing and naval blockade led to food and commodity shortages while rationing imposed on inhabitants. Luftwaffe and Regia Aeronautica reinforcements joined in bombing but during lull in early 1942 sixty-one Supermarine Spitfires delivered which very much improved defensive situation. Food ammunition and fuel remained short despite fighter reinforcement. Supply runs during lulls in bombing kept Malta in being though many ships damaged too severely to leave. Defense of island ensured Allies had advantage in fight to control Mediterranean. As garrison recovered from periods of intense bombing aircraft submarines and light surface ships resumed attacks on Axis supply ships. This led to fuel and supply shortages for Axis forces in Libya. Kriegsmarine began operations in Mediterranean with establishment of twenty-third U-boat Flotilla at base on Salamis Island in Greece in September 1941. Flotilla operated against British supply convoys to Allied forces on Malta and Tobruk. On the 7th of December control transferred from Kernével to Field Marshal Albert Kesselring Commander in Chief South OB Süd in Italy.
During 1941 British launched several offensives to push back Axis forces in North Africa. Operation Brevity failed as did Operation Battleaxe but Operation Crusader third larger offensive launched end of year. Over December 1941 into early 1942 Allied forces pushed Italian-German forces back through Libya to roughly limit previous Operation Compass advance. Taking advantage Allied position German and Italian forces counter-attacked and pushed back Allies to Gazala west of Tobruk. As both sides prepared offensives Axis forces struck first and inflicted big defeat upon Allied forces during Battle of Gazala. Routed Allied forces retreated to Egypt where they made stand at El Alamein. Following First Battle of El Alamein which had stalled Axis advance into Egypt British forces went onto offensive in October. Second Battle of El Alamein marked watershed in Western Desert Campaign and turned tide in North African Campaign. It ended Axis threat to Egypt Suez Canal and gaining access to Middle Eastern and Persian oil fields via North Africa. Eighth Army pushed west across desert capturing Libya while German and Italian forces occupied southern France and landed in Tunisia. On the 8th of November Allied forces launched Operation Torch landing various places across French North Africa. After liberating French North Africa clearing enemy from Italian colonies Allies sought bring entire French empire effectively into war against Axis powers.
Following victory in North Africa Allies turned attention knocking out Italy from war forcing Germany disperse its forces. Allies invaded Sicily in Operation Husky on the 10th of July 1943 with amphibious and airborne landings. German and Italian forces unable prevent Allied capture island but evacuated most troops equipment to mainland before Allies entered Messina on the 17th of August. On the 25th of July Italian government deposed Mussolini who subsequently arrested. New government announced continuation of war but secretly commenced negotiations with Allies. Allied invasion Italy started when British Eighth Army landed toe of Italy on the 3rd of September 1943 in Operation Baytown. Italian government signed surrender same day believing they would given time make preparations against anticipated German intervention. Allies announced Armistice of Cassibile on the 8th of September while German forces implemented plans occupy Italian peninsula. On the 9th of September American and British forces US Fifth Army landed Salerno in Operation Avalanche more British airborne troops landed Taranto in Operation Slapstick. German forces escaped Sicily concentrated against Avalanche while additional forces brought occupy Rome disarm Italian Army central northern Italy. Germans unable prevent Italian fleet sailing Malta though battleship Roma sunk Luftwaffe on the 9th of September. In occupied areas southern Europe Mediterranean German forces rapidly disarmed captured Italian troops putting down resistance offered Yugoslavia southern France Greece.
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Common questions
What were Benito Mussolini's strategic goals for Italy in the Mediterranean before World War II?
Benito Mussolini aimed to establish Italian hegemony across the Mediterranean-Danubian-Balkan region through conquest of an empire stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Strait of Hormuz. The Fascist regime sought to challenge France and Britain while gaining access to both the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
When did the United Kingdom establish Middle East Command during World War II?
The United Kingdom established Middle East Command in Cairo in June 1939. This command provided centralized authority for British army units across the entire theater including Aden, Cyprus, Egypt, Greece, Libya, Palestine, Iraq, Sudan, and the shores of the Persian Gulf.
On what date did Italy declare war on France and the United Kingdom in 1940?
Italy declared war on France and the United Kingdom on the 10th of June 1940. The next day the British Commonwealth declared war on Italy and hostilities began with the Battle of the Mediterranean.
How did the Yugoslav Partisans gain recognition as a resistance movement during the war?
Yugoslav Partisans commanded by Josip Broz Tito gained recognition from Allies as the sole resistance movement after receiving help from Soviets and Western Allies. They turned into a formidable fighting force that successfully liberated the country despite initial guerrilla uprisings against occupying forces.
What was the outcome of the Second Battle of El Alamein in October 1942?
The Second Battle of El Alamein marked a watershed in the Western Desert Campaign and turned the tide in the North African Campaign. It ended Axis threat to Egypt Suez Canal and allowed Eighth Army to push west across desert capturing Libya while gaining access to Middle Eastern oil fields.